Abstract
For more than three decades, foot and musculoskeletal conditions have been documented among both Asian [Elephas maximus] and African [Loxodonta africana] elephants in zoos. Although environmental factors have been hypothesized to play a contributing role in the development of foot and musculoskeletal pathology, there is a paucity of evidence-based research assessing risk. We investigated the associations between foot and musculoskeletal health conditions with demographic characteristics, space, flooring, exercise, enrichment, and body condition for elephants housed in North American zoos during 2012. Clinical examinations and medical records were used to assess health indicators and provide scores to quantitate conditions. Using multivariable regression models, associations were found between foot health and age [P value = 0.076; Odds Ratio = 1.018], time spent on hard substrates [P value = 0.022; Odds Ratio = 1.014], space experienced during the night [P value = 0.041; Odds Ratio = 1.008], and percent of time spent in indoor/outdoor exhibits during the day [P value < 0.001; Odds Ratio = 1.003]. Similarly, the main risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders included time on hard substrate [P value = 0.002; Odds Ratio = 1.050] and space experienced in indoor/outdoor exhibits [P value = 0.039; Odds Ratio = 1.037]. These results suggest that facility and management changes that decrease time spent on hard substrates will improve elephant welfare through better foot and musculoskeletal health.
Highlights
Foot and musculoskeletal []conditions are among the most commonly reported health issues affecting African and Asian elephants under human care, and have been challenging veterinary issues for zoo elephants for nearly a century [1, 2]
There were no significant statistical differences between the MS scores based on sex (P value = 0.070) or species (P value = 0.488)
A number of factors such as age, housing conditions and management practices have been suggested as risk factors for foot and musculoskeletal pathologies in elephants under managed care, but to date no studies have tested these associations with robust sample sizes and clinical assessments collected by veterinarians on individual elephants
Summary
Foot and musculoskeletal []conditions are among the most commonly reported health issues affecting African and Asian elephants under human care, and have been challenging veterinary issues for zoo elephants for nearly a century [1, 2]. In 1994, Mikota et al published an extensive review of medical records from 69 North American zoos and concluded that over the course of the 84 years for which documentation was available, an average of 50% of the elephants experienced foot pathology and 64% experienced musculoskeletal abnormalities [other than those affecting the feet] [3]. Foot and musculoskeletal health conditions of concern in elephants are pododermatitis, toenail cracks and overgrowth, onychia [inflammation/infection of the toenail bed], sole overgrowth and abscesses, osteomyelitis of the phalanges, degenerative joint disease, osteoarthritis, trauma, and soft tissue strains, this is not an inclusive list [5,6,7]. Elephant feet and limbs may be predisposed to some of these conditions due to their unique anatomy and pressures experienced due to large body mass [8]. The long life of these species may lead to repeated force to the structures of the foot and limbs, potentially leading to health concerns
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