Abstract
This study examines the effects of differences in structure from motion (SfM) software on image processing of aerial images by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and the resulting estimations of tree height and tree crown area. There were 20 flight conditions for the UAV aerial images, which were a combination of five conditions for flight altitude, two conditions for overlap, and two conditions for side overlap. Images were then processed using three SfM programs (Terra Mapper, PhotoScan, and Pix4Dmapper). The tree height and tree crown area were determined, and the SfM programs were compared based on the estimations. The number of densified point clouds for PhotoScan (160 × 105 to 50 × 105) was large compared to the two other two SfM programs. The estimated values of crown area and tree height by each SfM were compared via Bonferroni multiple comparisons (statistical significance level set at p < 0.05). The estimated values of canopy area showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in 14 flight conditions for Terra Mapper and PhotoScan, 16 flight conditions for Terra Mapper and Pix4Dmapper, and 11 flight conditions for PhotoScan and Pix4Dmappers. In addition, the estimated values of tree height showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in 15 flight conditions for Terra Mapper and PhotoScan, 19 flight conditions for Terra Mapper and Pix4Dmapper, and 20 flight conditions for PhotoScan and Pix4Dmapper. The statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the estimated value and measured value of each SfM was confirmed under 18 conditions for Terra Mapper, 20 conditions for PhotoScan, and 13 conditions for Pix4D. Moreover, the RMSE and rRMSE values of the estimated tree height were 5–6 m and 20–28%, respectively. Although the estimation accuracy of any SfM was low, the estimated tree height by Pix4D in many flight conditions had smaller RMSE values than the other software. As statistically significant differences were found between the SfMs in many flight conditions, we conclude that there were differences in the estimates of crown area and tree height depending on the SfM used. In addition, Pix4Dmapper is suitable for estimating forest information, such as tree height, and PhotoScan is suitable for detailed monitoring of disaster areas.
Highlights
The flight conditions marked as C or B in any structure from motion (SfM) software often included 80 or 85% of the degree of overlap in the photography
As statistically significant differences were found between the SfMs in many flight conditions, we conclude that there were differences in the estimates of crown area and tree height depending on the SfM used
The purpose of this study was to examine the results of image processing and estimations of the tree height and tree crown area using three different SfM software on aerial images from a small survey site
Summary
In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles ( known as UAVs and drones) and related technologies have been developed rapidly and are expected to play an active role in many fields. UAV aircraft can have rotary wings [1,2] or fixed wings [3,4]. Depending on the UAV model, they can have one RGB camera and laser scanners [1,5] and multispectral cameras [6,7,8]. The user can select from various models based on their objectives. The advantages of UAV are (1) high-resolution and high-density data, (2) flexible operation performance, (3) high frequency observation, (4)
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