Abstract
Simple SummaryVarious behavioral differences exist between male and female dogs, but very little research has focused on how sex influences cognition. Even fewer studies have taken sex hormones into account. Our aim was to investigate whether dogs’ sex and neutering status can influence two important cognitive traits: inhibitory control and social cognition. Inhibitory control was assessed using the cylinder test. In this task, the dog is required to inhibit reaching for a treat directly through a transparent barrier, and instead go around the barrier to access the treat. Social cognition was assessed using the unsolvable task, during which a food reward is visible but impossible to access. Dogs have three opportunities for action in this situation: (a) persisting with the problem independently, (b) seeking attention from a human, or (c) abandoning the task. Males were more impulsive and independent compared to females, whereas females had greater inhibitory control and were more likely to gaze at a human during a problem-solving situation. Since neutering status did not affect the results, it seems likely that these sex differences arose during early development and were not affected by levels of circulating sex hormones to a great extent.Sex differences in a variety of cognitive traits have long been reported in various species, including dogs. However, only a few canine studies have taken the possible effect of reproductive hormones into account. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sex and reproductive status of pet dogs (N = 1032) on two cognitive traits: inhibitory control and social cognition. Inhibitory control was assessed using the cylinder test, and the dogs’ tendency to initiate social contact with a human during a problem-solving situation was assessed using the unsolvable task. Female dogs had a significantly higher success rate in the cylinder test compared to males, and they spent significantly more time in human-directed behavior during the unsolvable task. In contrast, males spent significantly more time in independent behavior during the unsolvable task. Reproductive status had no significant effect on the results of the cylinder test or the unsolvable task. Our results showed that female dogs asked for more help/used a more cooperative strategy during a problem-solving situation and had greater inhibitory control compared to males. According to our results, it seems likely that these sex differences were not influenced to a large extent by reproductive hormones.
Highlights
Sex differences have long been reported in various species for several cognitive abilities, such as spatial cognition [1,2] and learning ability [3]
Sex differences may arise through three main mechanisms [8]: (a) genes located on sex chromosomes can cause differences in phenotype, (b) sex hormones may act on brain development before birth, which leads to sex-specific traits arising later in life, or (c) different levels of circulating hormones in adulthood may cause differences between males and females
When all individuals were included in the analysis, females had a significantly higher success rate in the cylinder test compared to males (U = 102,501.5, p < 0.001), indicating that males behaved more impulsively in the task
Summary
Sex differences have long been reported in various species for several cognitive abilities, such as spatial cognition [1,2] and learning ability [3]. Similar cognitive differences between males and females have been found in dogs [4,5,6,7], but only a few studies have investigated the topic so far. These sex-specific behavioral differences are likely the result of evolutionary processes and may have arisen due to different selection pressures on males and females. Exploring the basis of these sex differences is of prime relevance for our understanding of canine cognition and behavior. Inhibitory control is a cognitive skill which has been extensively researched in humans and other animals.
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