Editorial Volume 8 Issue 1 (January 2022)

"The aim of this thesis is to analyze how farmer-managed systems adapt to the changes related to the integration of new water resources and drip irrigation technologies. Chapters two and three study the operating principles for water management. These principles, when applied by farmers as collective rules, result in interactions that create equity on water rights and transparency. The study area includes the irrigation system of the Huerta of Valencia (Spain). This system, well known internationally, has traditionally used surface water from the Turia River. Though recently, the use of groundwater and treated wastewater have been integrated with surface water. In this context, the analysis evolves around the subject of how the rules, developed for the sharing of surface water, have been adapted for conjunctive use of these new water resources. In addition, attention is also placed on how this process was crucial for the management of the 2005 - 2008 drought period. Results show that the operating principles, based in the proportionality and uniformity on irrigation frequency between users, underlie a system of distribution that is equitable, transparent and robust. In addition, the use of drought emergency wells and the reuse of treated wastewater have not resulted in any important conflict. These resources are used together with surface water during drought periods, increasing the guarantee of supply. However, treated wastewater use affects the uniformity on irrigation frequency among Water User Associations. Besides, Groundwater User Associations overlap in irrigated surface, farmers and infrastructure with Water User Associations using surface water. This situation results in informal conjunctive, a strategy that seems effective to deal with drought. Chapter four analyses the conversion to drip irrigation, an important technological transformation. In order to do that, institutional and management changes are examined. The cases studied are the Acequia Real del Júcar, the Júcar-Turia Channel and the General Community of Irrigators of Vall d'Uixó. At Water User Association level a centralization of managment has been observed (in the irrigation network, water resources managment and the merging of preexisting associations). In addition, the reasons to convert, the advantages, disadvantages and the satisfaction of users are also assessed. Besides, the work examines some aspects of how users adapt the use of irrigation and fertigation technology to their needs, diverging in some cases from the initial criteria of design. Chapter five discusses and compares the implications of the previous chapters. Some aspects of irrigation management and governance are assessed in a more detailed manner for the case of gravity irrigation Water Users Associations. In addition, the changes related to the introduction of drip irrigation technologies and new water resources are further compared In conclusion, the thesis reflects on current water policy dilemmas, focusing in currently prevailing water policy measures in the Valencia region, but also at world level: drip irrigation implementation, reuse of treated water and conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water. This allows identifying and comparing local aspects that influence the adoption and adaptation of new technologies and the integration of new water sources. Considering these features in irrigation policy would increase the efficacy of traditional solutions. Including these perspectives would also help to adapt new solutions to collective water and irrigation management settings characterized by significant complexity."

Water is one of the most essential and important natural resource which has to be conserved, that too especially groundwater. Since agriculture is the predominant water consumer, measures have to be taken to reduce water consumption by agriculture. Drip irrigation is one such a measure that reduces water use and hence a study to access the factors influencing the adoption and non-adoption of drip irrigation was undertaken. Western agro-climatic zone of Tamil Nadu was selected as the study area with 160 drip irrigated farms and 160 flood irrigated farms as the sample.The study was carried out by collecting primary data through pre-tested interview schedule and the collected data were processed to perform logistic regression and Garrett ranking analysis. The study found that age, education, farming experience do not have significant impact in adoption of drip irrigation. Factors like land holding, No. of wells, farm income, irrigation source and distance from the surface water source are found to influence the farmer’s decision in adoption of drip irrigation in the western agro-climatic zone. The same kind of results was also found when the reasons for adoption and non-adoption of drip irrigation were ranked. Wells as the only source for irrigation ranked first and availability of subsidy ranked second in case of drip irrigation adoption. Less subsidy, high initial cost and availability of more than one water source ranked first, second and third places respectively in case of non-adoption of drip irrigation.

Due to its erratic nature of rainfall and anthropogenic factors, water is becoming a scarce resource in the Tigray region of Northern Ethiopia. Optimum crop yield is not achievable because of excessive moisture stress. As a method for efficient use of the available water resources, the low-cost family drip irrigation has been introduced throughout Tigray at household level. A study on the adoption status of the family drip irrigation and its challenges and determinant factors for adoption of family drip irrigation were conducted in selected locations in Tigray. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 135 households, adopters (47%) and non-adopters (53%), and key informants. Various continuous and discrete variables were analyzed by descriptive statistics, inferential (t test and Chi-square test) and binary logit regression model. The goodness of fit measures was employed to check and validate that the model fits the data well. The overall prediction of the logistic regression model is described as x 2 = 75. 57% at p = 0.001, described as highly significant, indicating that the independent variables significantly explained the dependent variable. The binary regression model prediction is also described by a strong association between the perception of farmers on drip irrigation adoption and the explanatory variables by the coefficient of determination (R 2) of 79.3%. Among the explanatory variables, education level, lack of technical knowledge, higher demand of labor requirements, extension services and sources of irrigation water were significantly important determinant factors for farmers’ adoption of drip irrigation. It is thus suggested that clear technical backups and increasing farmers’ awareness on the value of water would be essential for the efficient and sustainable use of the available water resources.

Irrigation has significant potential to enhance productivity, resilience to climatic risks and nutrition security in Sub-Saharan Africa. While the focus has historically been on large-scale dam-based schemes, farmer-managed small-scale irrigation (SSI) has gained increased attention in recent years. Using data from Ethiopia, Tanzania and Ghana, we first examine patterns of adoption of different SSI technologies. Next, we employ hierarchical modelling to examine which variables are associated with observed adoption patterns and cluster effects that explain variation in irrigation adoption. We document significant cross-country variation in adoption patterns and find a positive association between plot-level use of SSI and the intensity of agricultural labor and inorganic fertilizers applied on the plot. Community-level intra-cluster correlation (ICC) is the highest in Tanzania, where gravity-fed irrigation is most common while farm-level ICC is the highest in Ethiopia where motorized technologies are more common. These results suggest the need for localized investments to ease locale-specific potential constraints. For example, easing possible liquidity constraints to acquiring motorized technologies can be more effective in Ethiopia while the construction of dams and improved conveyance systems, as well as the strengthening of community-based irrigation management (e.g., through Water User Associations (WUAs)) can be more effective in Tanzania. Further research is needed to understand pathways for selected plot-level characteristics that affect use of SSI including status of plot ownership and the gender of the plot manager.

Small scale irrigation farming has been recognized as an important avenue for improving the well being of poor people living in arid and marginal areas of the world. The contribution of small scale irrigation can be seen in its ability to ensure food security as well as contribute to the income of farmers. In the Garu-Tempane District, small scale irrigation farming is a major source of livelihood for people in the district. Despite the importance of the irrigation schemes to dry season farming the schemes face challenges such as inadequate water, inadequate canals, choked and broken canals due to frequent breakdown and inadequate repairs which affect their effective operation. Although the major use of the dam waters was dry season farming, animal watering and fishing were also found to be significant uses of the dam waters. In north-eastern Ghana as it is in many parts of the third world, external development agencies support the formation of Water User Associations (WUAs) for the management of community-based irrigation schemes. Although, the management of the schemes and the use of the dam is the responsibility of the community represented by the WUAs it was revealed by the study that, in the management of challenges that confront small scale irrigation schemes, WUAs depended on the supportive roles of traditional authorities as well as district assemblies for discharging their management responsibilities more effectively.

Many African governments have adopted decentralization policy by establishing water management structures to assist in the water resources management. Formation of new water user associations were considered to work on behalf of Basin Water Boards; To collect water user fees,to manage, distribute and conserve water from a source used jointly by the members of the association, to resolve conflicts between members of the association related to the joint use of a water resource through established laws, to protect and conserve water sources and environments. However, it is not clear how the new water user associations functions to realize the goals of integrated water resources management. This study assessed the role of a newly created water user association in Sanya-Kware sub-catchment . The paper is based on three months of research in Sanya-Kware sub-catchment, Tanzania. The method used included semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observations in the sub-catchment. Interviews and discussions were held with the leaders of Sanya-Kware sub-catchment water user association, estates farm managers,Water Supply Trustees Managers,farmers and the Pangani Basin Water Office staff. Field observations at the Sub-Catchment were carried to enhance quality of data. The results shows that the newly created Sanya-Kware sub-catchment water user association has not united all water users, reduced conflicts, nor promoted education to farmers on proper management of water resources. Farmers interviewed in the highland state that Sanya-Kware water users association is an association of few people and therefore has no legitimacy. This is mainly because in the highland,farmers have sufficient water and also they were not properly involved in the formation of the association. However, the water user association legitimacy and hence its functioning improves as one moves from highland to lowland areas where water is scarce. Although some of the water users from the village are cooperating others are reluctant to accept the newly created Water Users Association in management of water resources.The complexity of the interaction between the state-led water user association and existing water users appear to highlight the challenges of implementing integrated water resources management in Sanya-Kware sub-catchment. In order for the water user association to be effective, Pangani Basin Water Board need to put more emphasis on water users' education and awareness training at the sub-catchment level.

Generally, the study area including the city of Taiz, in particular is suffering from an acute shortage of water due to the increase of the growing demand on water for domestic and industrial needs as well as the water needs for agriculture in the region. In addition, the water resources in the study area are limited to the aquifers while water extraction rates exceed the natural recharge and the use is not effective. Therefore, it highlights the importance of water demand management to maintain the quantity and quality of drinking water and domestic use, irrigation and industry. The objectives of this study is to evaluate current and future vulnerability of water sources in the study area; Development of scenarios and analysis of future water balance to find out the best solution to the problem of water in Taiz basin as the study area; Select the appropriate scenario to resolve the water problem. The results of this study will assist decision makers in the field of water resources for better planning and management in the future. During the period 15/1/2013 to 15/4/2013 Implementation of the field study in 1501water points, these water points are distributed between 954 hand-dug well, 479 deep well, 50 springs, five water collection tanks, two dams, and six water retaining walls. For calculating the amount of water supply in the region and the amount of water deficit, in addition to knowing the amount of needs that must be secured in the future, Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) application as Decision Support System (DSS) to manage the supply and demand for water in Taiz basin as the study area. The analysis and results using WEAP program include the following themes: Ground water storage in the aquifers: The usable storage for the base year of the model (2013) has been calculated for the five sub-basins in the study area, Estimated ground water storage in alluvial aquifer (in Mm3) ranged 221.52-
 415.36 Mm3 at best estimate at 332.29 Mm3, groundwater storage in Volcanic aquifer ranged 129.98-2599.52 Mm3 at best estimate 259.95, whereas groundwater storage in sandstone aquifer ranged 5.044- 50.44Mm3 at best estimate at 10.088; Unmet water demand, The gap between supply and demand for water in the study area was estimated as (47,692,840.9 m3). Preliminary, set of adaptation strategies that address water scarcity; Interpret the proposed set of adaptation strategies to solve water issue from improve water services and water management for the urban area as part of the study in Central and Al Hawban Sub Catchment:
 (Increase the coverage rates for water services, Diversify water sources for the city, Efficient water management, Implementation of control and water quality program in water sources and drinking water factories, Development of specialized human cadres technically and administratively for the development of water management, Flow of water services from different water sources….. etc.); and Improve water projects and water management for the rural area as part of the study area Al Dabab Sub Catchment, Al Janad Sub Catchment and Thi- Sufal Al Haimah Sub Catchment: Commitment of the Commission basin management to Upper Rasyan Valley, The formation of committees Sub-water basin to ensure the management of water resources from the lower level, Resolving water conflicts in different regions of the study area and the basin provider of water to the city of Taiz, Community participation by establishment of water users associations (WUAs) in the sub- basin areas.

Water has become increasingly scarce in northwestern China due to climate change, economic growth and burgeoning population. Improving agriculture water use efficiency is of strategic significance in promoting socio-economic water productivity for arid and semi-arid inland river basins. Based on the household-level data collected in Zhangye City, which is located in the middle reaches of Heihe River Basin (HRB) in northwestern China, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of maize is estimated based on stochastic frontier analysis. The impacts of influential factors, especially the participatory irrigation management (PIM) through water user associations (WUAs), on IWUE were further examined. Results show that the estimated average Technical efficiency (TE) and IWUE of maize production are 0.74 and 0.24, respectively. The participation level in irrigation management is very low, with only 40% of the respondents participating in WUA meetings. In addition, most have a relatively superficial understanding of the roles and management scheme of WUAs. Empirical results show that though significantly positive, the magnitude of the impact of PIM on IWUE is relatively small. Households that participated in WUA meetings achieved only 0.002% higher IWUEs than those have never participated in. WUAs are not operating with their designed objectives. Consequently, reform of the traditional management form of WUAs to make them more transparent, fair, and extensively participated in among farmers is in urgently need. In addition, we also find that water price, source of irrigation water, irrigation technology adoption and famers’ education level and farming experience also have significant positive impacts on IWUE.

This study investigates the impact of drip irrigation on sugarcane cultivation in Mandya district, Karnataka, considering the challenges posed by traditional flood irrigation methods and the increasing demand for water resources. The research compares the adoption of drip and flood irrigation, analyzing socio-economic characteristics, cropping patterns, and the comparative economics of sugarcane cultivation under both methods. Externality concept and Partial budgeting technique was emphasized to estimate the additional benefit derived from drip irrigation over flood irrigation. The study reveals that drip irrigation leads to higher water use efficiency, improved crop quality, and environmental sustainability. The adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane cultivation results in significant economic benefits, with higher net returns and increased yields then farmers following flood irrigation. The findings highlight the positive externality associated with drip irrigation, contributing to water conservation, reduced labor costs, and increased agricultural sustainability with an additional benefit of around Rs. 41,000 derived due to drip adoption over flood irrigation in Sugarcane cultivation. As Karnataka faces evolving challenges in agriculture, the widespread adoption of drip irrigation emerges as a pivotal factor in ensuring the prosperity of sugarcane cultivation and addressing environmental concerns.

The use of irrigation water extracted from aquifers with submerged pumps is essential to ensure agricultural production mainly in water-scarce regions.. However, the use of the water source requires of a considerable energy consumption by water user associations (WUAs) being key factor to consider due to their high share of total management, operation, and maintenance costs. In this work, a new tool (MOPWE, model to optimize water extraction) to optimize the water and energy use of wells in WUAs was developed. MOPWE was applied to a real WUA located in Castilla-La Mancha region (southeast of Spain). This WUA utilizes groundwater as water source that is extracted from several different wells of different characteristics (discharges, water table levels, efficiency, variable speed drives…).. Therefore, these kind of WUAs must decide not only which well to activate at a certain time but also at what frequency the variable-speed drive should run the pump. With the aim of aiding decision-making in groundwater abstraction, a new management model (MOPWE), which is based on multi-objective genetic algorithms and is implemented in MATLAB®. This model helps determine the optimal daily management of a WUA with multiple underground supply sources and focuses on the management of wells while considering the water reservoir level. After 18,000 generations of the genetic algorithm, the pareto front was obtained with the best WUA managements achieving a water and energy savings of 25% and 54%, respectively. At the end of the irrigation season, the optimal total energy consumption per unit of water applied was 38% lower than that achieved by the current management. Results showed that a more realistic approach can be implemented when several water supplies operate jointly under a collaborative principle.

Management evaluation of Water Users Associations using benchmarking techniques

Building on existing literature and the analysis of a portfolio of development projects (past and under implementation), this paper reviews the evolution of water user associations (WUAs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), reflecting on the conceptualization of how they operate, and the promised outcomes related to irrigation development, and the efficient and effective delivery of […]

Water scarcity and COVID-19 in sub-Saharan Africa

Small-scale irrigation schemes in northern Ghana are managed by Water User Associations (WUAs). Maintenance of these schemes is a collective effort by WUA members. We argue that individual labour contributions to maintenance depend on perceptions of the prevailing WUA governance strategies and on time preferences of WUA members. We empirically estimate these relationships using data collected through a household survey and a field experiment held in 18 small-scale irrigation schemes. We find that governance perceptions of conflict management and equity and fairness positively associate with labour contributions, while the (negative) association of time preferences is not statistically significant.

Less than 40% of Uganda’s population has access to safe drinking water. Municipal water systems rarely reach the poorest, most remote communities, and where they do reach populations, quality and quantity are often inadequate due to poor system operation and maintenance. Decentralised water services, such as RWH can provide essential water where centralised supply is inadequate or does not reach. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) encourages the use of rainwater harvesting (RWH) to improve community water access in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Nonetheless, uptake of RWH across SSA is below targets that have been set by the United Nations. If these targets are to be met, further research is needed to understand the drivers and barriers of RWH adoption for water insecure populations in Uganda. Water security has become a widely accepted term that communicates the broader social, political and environmental benefits of water-related services. Rather than focusing solely on the materiality of water access in itself, water security frameworks have been used to assess the less tangible outcomes of decentralised water access. For this thesis, a new water security framework was designed based on the perspectives of water practitioners and stakeholders involved in the delivery of water services in south-west Uganda. The framework provided structure to identify and assess the sociotechnical outcomes of RWH access. The framework includes ten sociotechnical water security goals and is based on a new definition of water security developed for this research: ‘water services that contribute to community water security provide sufficient water of acceptable quality for good health, which is affordable and available year-round. They sustain livelihoods and can be equitably accessed across all user-groups. These water services should minimise the risk of local conflict and boost community cohesion and climate resilience. The management of these services should be supported by local and national institutions so they can be reliably sustained over the long-term’. Building on previous research, the water security goals go above and beyond solely describing the fundamental physical characteristics of water provision, instead, they reference socioeconomic, environmental and technical outcomes. The structure of the framework encourages researchers to collect a range of qualitative and quantitative data. Using a ‘two-case’ case study strategy, the framework was applied to the assessment of ten RWH installations in a rural (Kabale) and an urban (Mbarara) community in south-West Uganda to identify the drivers, barriers and outcomes of RWH use in the region. Comparisons between the urban and rural community uncovered how localised socioeconomic, infrastructural and governance structures influence the delivery and uptake of RWH in Uganda. For the assessment, a mixed-methods approach was adopted which included water balance modelling, sanitary surveys, site inspections, key informant interviews, focus groups and physiochemical and bacteriological water quality tests. The significant drivers of RWH use in the rural community were proximity of water in comparison to alternative water sources, the potential for improved livelihoods, protection against climate unpredictability and support from a local NGO. RWH provided good quality water that met WHO standards at 80% of sites. There was enough water to support household and micro-enterprise activities. High capital cost was found to be a significant barrier to the adoption of the technology. The drivers for adoption among the urban community were poor municipal water quality, service interruptions and high costs associated with existing water services. This was compounded by poor sense of value for money and mistrust of the municipal service. In the urban community RWH provided good water quality for 70% of the sites assessed. A lack of awareness and financing mechanisms were highlighted as significant barriers to RWH use. In neither community could RWH provide year-round availability of water and so is most appropriate as a supplementary water source in this region of Uganda. The identification of the drivers, barriers and outcomes of RWH use in these two communities allows policymakers and water practitioners to better understand which incentives, programmes and mechanisms can support the uptake and sustained use of RWH in Uganda. The water security framework provides structure to assess the sociotechnical outcomes of decentralised water access, emphasising the importance of the human-water relationship to global development.