Abstract
Information regarding domestic water consumption is vital, as the Kathmandu Valley will soon be implementing the Melamchi Water Supply Project; however, updated information on the current situation after the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (GEQ) is still lacking. We investigated the dynamics of domestic water consumption pre- and post-GEQ. The piped water supply was short, and consumption varied widely across the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) branches and altitude. The reduction in piped, ground, and jar water consumption and the increase in tanker water consumption post-GEQ appeared to be due to the impact of the GEQ. However, the impact did not appear to be prominent on per capita water consumption, although it was reduced from 117 to 99 L post-GEQ. Piped, ground, and tanker water use were associated with an increase and jar water use was associated with a decrease in water consumption. Despite improvements in quantity, inequality in water consumption and inequity in affordability across wealth status was well established. This study suggests to KUKL the areas of priority where improvements to supply are required, and recommends an emphasis on resuming performance. Policy planners should consider the existing inequity in affordability, which is a major issue in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
Highlights
The World Health Organization (WHO) defined “domestic water” as water used for all domestic purposes including consumption, bathing and food preparation [1,2]
We investigated the dynamics of domestic water consumption in the urban area of the Kathmandu Valley, pre- and post-Gorkha Earthquake (GEQ)
986 households, 87% were from Kathmandu, 9% from Lalitpur, and 4% from Bhaktapur district; 62% were of Janajati ethnicity, 24% of Brahmin, 14% of Chettri, and 0.1% of Dalit; 59% were owners of the house; and the average monthly expenditure was USD $294 (±165) pre- and USD $322 (±178) post-GEQ (see Supplementary Materials, Table S1; 1 USD = 109 Nepalese Rupees (NR), as of
Summary
The World Health Organization (WHO) defined “domestic water” as water used for all domestic purposes including consumption, bathing and food preparation [1,2]. The basic requirement of domestic water differs widely in different climatic conditions, lifestyle, culture, tradition, diet, technology, wealth and development [3]. The quantity of domestic water influences hygiene, which affects public health [4]. Water 2017, 9, 222 washing, and basic food hygiene is possible, but laundry and bathing are difficult to ensure and so the health concerns are high. Apart from the obvious health consequences, the quantity of domestic water consumption is one of the most important proxies of economic development [5]. Ensuring the adequacy of domestic water is an important issue and is a serious challenge in water scarce areas
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