Abstract
Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) was investigated using a 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach. The caps and stems were studied separately, revealing different metabolic compositions. Additionally, multivariate data analyses of the fungal basidiomata and the type of soil were performed. Compared to the stems, A. muscaria caps exhibited higher concentrations of isoleucine, leucine, valine, alanine, aspartate, asparagine, threonine, lipids (mainly free fatty acids), choline, glycerophosphocholine (GPC), acetate, adenosine, uridine, 4-aminobutyrate, 6-hydroxynicotinate, quinolinate, UDP-carbohydrate and glycerol. Conversely, they exhibited lower concentrations of formate, fumarate, trehalose, α- and β-glucose. Six metabolites, malate, succinate, gluconate, N-acetylated compounds (NAC), tyrosine and phenylalanine, were detected in whole A. muscaria fruiting bodies but did not show significant differences in their levels between caps and stems (P value>0.05 and/or OPLS-DA loading correlation coefficient <0.4). This methodology allowed for the differentiation between the fruiting bodies of A. muscaria from mineral and mineral-organic topsoil. Moreover, the metabolomic approach and multivariate tools enabled to ascribe the basidiomata of fly agaric to the type of topsoil. Obtained results revealed that stems metabolome is more dependent on the topsoil type than caps. The correlation between metabolites and topsoil contents together with its properties exhibited mutual dependences.
Highlights
The functional importance of fungi in ecosystems [1, 2] with the food and beverage industries, agriculture, the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries, and medicine being regularly emphasized [3, 4], there has been comparatively little focus on fungal metabolic properties in various wild habitats
A. muscaria forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with a broad range of hosts, including those from the families Betulaceae, Cistaceae, Cupressaceae, Fagaceae, Pinaceae, Rosaceae and Salicaceae, and it associates most frequently with tree members of genera Betula, Pinus and Picea [29,30,31,32,33]. It appears that the typical form of fly agaric (A. muscaria var. muscaria), which can be found in a variety of habitats in Europe, North Asia, and the most northwestern parts of North America (Alaska), is straightforward to identify
Genetic studies conducted by Oda et al [36] and Geml et al [37,38,39] showed that A. muscaria is composed of several unique major lineages that appear to be distinct phylogenetic species, with no gene flow occurring among them
Summary
The functional importance of fungi in ecosystems [1, 2] with the food and beverage industries, agriculture, the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries, and medicine being regularly emphasized [3, 4], there has been comparatively little focus on fungal metabolic properties in various wild habitats. Commonly known as fly agaric or fly amanita, is one of the most gorgeous members of the basidiomycetous genus Amanita and one of the most striking and recognizable of all macrofungi [11, 12] This inedible, neurotropic mushroom [13,14,15] is native to temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere; it has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, and it seems to have become a cosmopolitan species [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28]. Genetic studies conducted by Oda et al [36] and Geml et al [37,38,39] showed that A. muscaria is composed of several unique major lineages that appear to be distinct phylogenetic species, with no gene flow occurring among them
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