Abstract
Telomeres are essential chromosomal regions that prevent critical shortening of linear chromosomes and genomic instability in eukaryotic cells. The bulk of telomeric DNA is replicated by semi-conservative DNA replication in the same way as the rest of the genome. However, recent findings revealed that replication of telomeric repeats is a potential cause of chromosomal instability, because DNA replication through telomeres is challenged by the repetitive telomeric sequences and specific structures that hamper the replication fork. In this review, we summarize current understanding of the mechanisms by which telomeres are faithfully and safely replicated in mammalian cells. Various telomere-associated proteins ensure efficient telomere replication at different steps, such as licensing of replication origins, passage of replication forks, proper fork restart after replication stress, and dissolution of post-replicative structures. In particular, shelterin proteins have central roles in the control of telomere replication. Through physical interactions, accessory proteins are recruited to maintain telomere integrity during DNA replication. Dormant replication origins and/or homology-directed repair may rescue inappropriate fork stalling or collapse that can cause defects in telomere structure and functions.
Highlights
Protection of the ends of linear chromosomes depends on specialized nucleoprotein structures known as telomeres, which function as buffers for the shortening of linear chromosomes during each round of semi-conservative DNA replication and prevent activation of DNA damage responses, such as the ATM and ATR checkpoint signaling, classical and alternative non-homologous end joining pathways, and homologous recombination repair [1,2,3,4]
The telomeric repeat array is bound by the shelterin protein complex that is composed of telomeric repeat-binding factor 1 and 2 (TRF1 and TRF2), repressor/activator protein 1 (RAP1), TRF1-interacting nuclear protein 2 (TIN2), protection of telomeres protein 1 (POT1), and POT1- and TIN2-interacting protein TPP1 (TINT1/PTOP/PIP1) [6]
In the late M to G1 phases, the MCM2–7 helicase complex is recruited onto chromatin in an inactive form in a process that is dependent on the origin-recognition complex (ORC), cell division cycle protein 6 (CDC6), and DNA replication licensing factor Cdt1 [18,19]
Summary
Protection of the ends of linear chromosomes depends on specialized nucleoprotein structures known as telomeres, which function as buffers for the shortening of linear chromosomes during each round of semi-conservative DNA replication and prevent activation of DNA damage responses, such as the ATM and ATR checkpoint signaling, classical and alternative non-homologous end joining pathways, and homologous recombination repair [1,2,3,4]. The chromosome ends are stabilized by the formation of a protective loop structure, called a T-loop (telomere loop), in which the G-overhang presumably loops back and invades the double-stranded region of telomeric DNA [7,8]. The majority of telomeric double-stranded DNA repeats are replicated in a semi-conservative manner by conventional DNA replication machinery [14]. We summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that support efficient DNA replication at mammalian telomeres, with a focus on the functional interactions between shelterin components and a variety of accessory proteins that enable the replication machinery to reach the chromosomal termini
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