Abstract
In recent years, many studies have highlighted the consistent finding of tramadol (TRA) in the effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WTPs) and also in some rivers and lakes in both Europe and North America, suggesting that TRA is removed by no more than 36% by specific disinfection treatments. The extensive use of this drug has led to environmental pollution of both water and soil, up to its detection in growing plants. In order to expand the knowledge about TRA toxicity as well as the nature of its disinfection by-products (DBPs), a simulation of the waste treatment chlorination step has been reported herein. In particular, we found seven new by-products, that together with TRA, have been assayed on different living organisms (Aliivibrio fischeri, Raphidocelis subcapitata and Daphnia magna), to test their acute and chronic toxicity. The results reported that TRA may be classified as a harmful compound to some aquatic organisms whereas its chlorinated product mixture showed no effects on any of the organisms tested. All data suggest however that TRA chlorination treatment produces a variety of DBPs which can be more harmful than TRA and a risk for the aquatic environment and human health.
Highlights
According to information available to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), the loose legislation in China, India and Sri Lanka allows mass production, not always legal, of tramadol (TRA).Generally, the drug arrives by ship to the Mediterranean where Italy and Greece are important points of disembarkation and distribution, but above all the main flow is towards Libya
Chlorination of TRA produced the disinfection by-products BP1–BP7 (Scheme 1) that were isolated by chromatography and identified on the basis of their physical features
This paper investigated the fate of TRA following disinfection treatment by chlorination and the ecotoxicity of this drug and its disinfection by-products
Summary
According to information available to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), the loose legislation in China, India and Sri Lanka allows mass production, not always legal, of tramadol (TRA). The drug arrives by ship to the Mediterranean where Italy and Greece are important points of disembarkation and distribution, but above all the main flow is towards Libya. The traffic continues to Egypt and ends up in the main Middle Eastern countries, where in many countries it is not considered illegal. It is estimated that world traffic drives a turnover of. The total amount of TRA used worldwide in the period from 1990 to 2009 was calculated to be 11,758 million of defined daily doses (1 DDD is equal to 300 mg) [1]. There is evidence of increasing traffic in TRA preparations to North and West Africa, as indicated by recent large seizures
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