Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood

Presence of phenolsulfotransferase activity in microvascular endothelial cells: Formation of 5-HT- O-Sulfate in intact cells

Quantification of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in human samples is essential for accurately assessing human exposure and understanding the potential health impacts of these pervasive pollutants. Blood plays a key role in revealing potential MNPs exposure and its health impacts. The detection of MNPs in human blood, however, is analytically challenging due to the complex composition of the sample and the limited availability of sensitive analytical methods. Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) using Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM) has been widely used to quantify MNPs in human blood. In this work the analytical approach was improved by employing full scan data acquisition. The mass concentration of six polymers widely used in plastic materials - poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – was determined in 102 human whole blood samples. Rigorous QA/QC measures were established which are essential for ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the method. Limits of detection (LODs) ranged from 14 ng/mL (PP) to 245 ng/mL (PE). The recoveries of the quantitation compounds ranged from 52 to 102%. MNPs were detected in all the samples investigated with PVC as the most frequently detected polymer (99% of all samples). For 20% of samples, the concentration was above the limit of quantification (LOQ) with an average total concentration of 386 ng/mL. The analysis of MNPs in human blood is relevant for future research to understand the pathways of MNP absorption, accumulation, and potential health risks associated with exposure to plastic pollutants. The use of full scan data acquisition enabled simultaneous ion monitoring allowing for more careful selection of quantitation compounds and provides the potential for retrospective data analysis.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s43591-025-00152-7.

Effects of micro- and nanoplastics on blood cells in vitro and cardiovascular parameters in vivo, considering their presence in the human bloodstream and potential impact on blood pressure.

The limited available data on human internal exposure poses a significant challenge in assessing the risks associated with micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) to human health. A contributing factor to this challenge is the scarcity of sensitive analytical methods to quantify the mass concentration of plastic polymers in human blood. In this study we present an improved and validated method for quantitatively analysing polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polypropylene, and polystyrene in human whole blood samples. We introduce and apply stringent quality assurance and quality control procedures, including the validation of the method using quality control samples and continuous monitoring of batch analyses to ensure data reliability. Expanding upon prior pioneering work by Leslie et al. (2022), we optimised the pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) conditions to enhance method sensitivity and selectivity. Recovery experiments demonstrated a high level of accuracy and precision, with values ranging from 68 to 109% for quality control samples. Applying this method to whole blood samples (n = 68), we identified plastic polymers in 64 samples, with PE as the predominant polymer, followed by PVC, PET, and PMMA. In 17 blood samples, polymer concentrations were found to exceed the limit of quantitation, with a mean of 1070 ng/mL for the summed polymer concentrations, ranging between 170 and 2490 ng/mL. The mean of the sum of polymers across all blood samples (n = 68) was 268 ng/mL. These findings underscore the pressing need for further research aimed at comprehensive MNP quantification in human matrices, considering the potential health implications.

Plastic particles (PLs) are ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems, and aquaculture production is susceptible to contamination from external or endogenous sources. This study investigated PL presence in water, fish feed and body sites of 55 European seabass produced in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). Fish morphometric parameters and health status biomarkers were determined. A total of 372 PLs were recovered from water (37.2 PL/L), 118 PLs from feed (3.9 PL/g), and 422 from seabass (0.7 PL/g fish; all body sites analysed). All 55 specimens had PLs in at least two of the four body sites analysed. Concentrations were higher in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT; 1.0 PL/g) and gills (0.8 PL/g) than in the liver (0.8 PL/g) and muscle (0.4 PL/g). PL concentration in GIT was significantly higher than in muscle. Black, blue, and transparent fibres made of man-made cellulose/rayon and polyethylene terephthalate were the most common PLs in water and seabass, while black fragments of phenoxy resin were the most common in feed. The levels of polymers linked to RAS components (polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride) were low, suggesting a limited contribution to the overall PL levels found in water and/or fish. The mean PL size recovered from GIT (930 μm) and gills (1047 μm) was significantly larger than those found in the liver (647 μm) and dorsal muscle (425 μm). Considering all body sites, PLs bioconcentrated in seabass (BCFFish >1), but their bioaccumulation did not occur (BAFFish <1). No significant differences were observed in oxidative stress biomarkers between fish with low (<7) and high (≥7) PL numbers. These findings suggest that fish produced in RAS are mainly exposed to MPs through water and feed. Further monitoring under commercial conditions and risk assessment are warranted to identify potential threats to fish and human health and define mitigating measures.

Plastic pollution: Where are we regarding research and risk assessment in support of management and regulation?

First account of plastic pollution impacting freshwater fishes in the Amazon: Ingestion of plastic debris by piranhas and other serrasalmids with diverse feeding habits

Pathophysiological impact of nano- and microplastics on the kidney and their potential role in blood pressure regulation.

2-Phenoxyethanol (PhE) is used as a broad-spectrum preservative in several consumer products like cosmetics and cleaning agents. To enable the analysis and assessment of human exposure to PhE, a fast and sensitive LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of two PhE metabolites, namely phenoxyacetic acid (PhAA) and 4-hydroxyphenoxyacetic acid (4-OH-PhAA) in human urine and blood was developed and validated. The method is based on liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Sample preparation was different for both matrices: either a simple "dilute&shoot"-approach for urine samples or a liquid-liquid-extraction (LLE) for blood samples was used. The limit of quantification (LOQ) is 10 μg L-1 and 6 μg L-1 for PhAA and 20 μg L-1 and 10 μg L-1 for 4-OH-PhAA in urine and blood, respectively. The method was applied to urine samples of 153 persons without occupational exposure to PhE and to blood samples of 7 additional volunteers. In blood, PhAA was detected in 57% of all samples (range: <LOQ - 0.017 mg L-1), while 4-OH-PhAA was not detectable. In contrast to that, PhAA was found in 99% and 4-OH-PhAA in 95% of all urine samples. The median concentrations in urine were 0.99 mg L-1 (range: <LOQ - 53.83 mg L-1) for PhAA and 0.11 mg L-1 (<LOQ - 4.98 mg L-1) for 4-OH-PhAA, respectively. Analyses after acid hydrolysis showed that both urinary metabolites are excreted unconjugated.

Quantification of all 209 PCB congeners in blood-Can indicators be used to calculate the total PCB blood load?

Background Microplastics (MPs) from environmental sources have been detected in various human organs, including the circulatory system. The biological response to such MPs is usually tested under artificial conditions, restricting their relevance. Objectives Probing the influence of MPs with realistic properties concerning size, shape, weathering-induced polymer degradation, and concentration on the response of human whole blood. Methods This study examines the response of human whole blood to NPs of different cryomilled commodity polymers at a concentration range of 4 – 100 µg/ml, and mean size of about 25 µm, covering microplastic concentrations and size reported for organs and blood. Environmental degradation of the polymers was simulated through graded artificial weathering of the particles for 14 days in cyclic UV, temperature, and humidity changes, representing about 1.5 years of environmental weathering, and analyzed by Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and zeta potential measurement. Results Spectroscopic analysis of the bulk polymers indicated the degradation of aromatic polymers with the formation of carboxylic acid groups. Surface-sensitive zeta potential measurements also demonstrated a shift to more negative values of the polymers with aromatic groups. In contact with whole blood, these structural changes were associated with a pronounced coagulant response to the weathered polymers polystyrene (PS), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinylchloride (PVC) containing aromatic plasticizers, compared to the pristine ones. There was a primary correlation with the changes in surface properties observed in the zeta potential shift. In the case of PET, these surface- and biological effects did exceed the changes in the FTIR and Raman spectra. A dose-dependency to the particle count and the intensity of weathering was observed. Discussion These findings underscore the impact of environmental weathering of common MPs on their biological performance.

Resolvins and protectins are families of local lipid mediators generated from the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) during self-limited resolution of inflammation. We aimed to develop a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) assay to measure these lipid mediators in human blood following n-3 fatty acid supplementation and to determine whether the blood collection method affects their measured concentration. Blood samples from 20 healthy volunteers enrolled in an n-3 fatty acid supplementation trial were collected in EDTA, heparin, or citrate, or prepared as serum after volunteers had undergone 3 weeks of supplementation. Plasma or serum was purified by solid-phase chromatography and analyzed with LC-MS/MS. The assay identified 18R/S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,16E-eicosapentaenoic acid (18R/S-HEPE); 17S-hydroxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,15E,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (17R/S-HDHA); 7S,8R,17S-trihydroxy-4Z,9E,11E,13Z,15E,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (RvD1); 7S,8R,17R-trihydroxy-4Z,9E,11E,13Z,15E19Z-docosahexaenoicacid (17R-RvD1); 7S,16R,17S-trihydroxy-4Z,8E,10Z,12E,14E,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (RvD2); 10S,17S-dihydroxy-4Z,7Z,11E,13Z,15E,19Z-docosahexaenoicacid (10S,17S-DiHDHA); and 10R,17S-dihydroxy-4Z,7Z,11E,13E,15Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid (protectin D1, PD1). The limits of detection and quantification were 3 pg and 6 pg on-column, respectively. The pathway precursors 18R/S-HEPE and 17R/S-HDHA, but not the resolvins, were lower in serum compared with plasma. After n-3 fatty acid supplementation, mean (SD) EDTA plasma concentrations were: 18R/S-HEPE 386 (56) pg/mL, 17R/S-HDHA 365 (65) pg/mL, RvD2 26 (4) pg/mL, RvD1 31 (5) pg/mL, and 17R-RvD 161 (7) pg/mL. 10S,17S-DiHDHA and PD1 concentrations were below the limit of quantification. This is the first study reporting 17R/S-HDHA, RvD1, and RvD2 concentrations measured in human blood following oral n-3 fatty acid supplementation. The concentrations of the antiinflammatory lipid mediators RvD1 and RvD2 were within the biological range known to have antiinflammatory and proresolving activities in isolated human leukocytes and in in vivo studies in mice.

2-Phenoxyethanol (PhE) is widely used as a preservative in consumer products such as cosmetics as well as at the workplace as a component of metal-working fluids and hydraulic fluids. Therefore, both industry workers and consumers may potentially be exposed to PhE. An analytical method for the quantification of PhE and three selected metabolites, namely phenoxyacetic acid (PhAA), 4-hydroxyphenoxyacetic acid (4-OH-PhAA), and 4-hydroxyphenoxyethanol (4-OH-PhE), in human urine and blood was developed and validated. The sample preparation includes enzymatic hydrolysis of urine samples or protein precipitation of blood samples, followed by liquid-liquid extraction and silylation of the target analytes. Analyses of the extracts were carried out by gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS-MS). 3,4-Hydroxyphenoxyethanol, a probably minor PhE metabolite, could not be reliably analyzed due to its instability. The limits of quantification (LOQ) of the analytes ranged between 0.5 and 6.1 μg/L and 2.0 and 3.9 μg/L in urine and blood, respectively. The method was successfully applied to spot urine samples of 50 individuals without occupational exposure to PhE and additionally to blood samples from seven volunteers. In urine, PhAA and 4-OH-PhAA could be quantified in all analyzed samples, whereas 4-OH-PhE and unchanged PhE were found in 36% and 32% of the samples, respectively. In blood, PhAA was also found in every sample in levels above the LOQ, whereas PhE itself was detected in three of seven samples only. Neither 4-OH-PhAA nor 4-OH-PhE was found in any of the analyzed blood samples. The developed method promises to be a valuable tool for PhE monitoring of urine and blood samples and may also enable an advanced investigation of PhE biotransformation pathways in humans.

A novel enzymatic method for isolation of plastic particles from human blood

We developed a simple and sensitive HPLC method for the determination of selenocyanate (SeCN-). The König reaction, which is generally used for the determination of cyanide and thiocyanate, was applied for the post-column detection, and using barbituric acid as a fluorogenic reagent made it possible to detect SeCN- with high sensitivity. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 73.5 fmol and 245.1 fmol, respectively. Subsequently, the amounts of SeCN- in human blood and in cultured cell samples were analyzed, and no SeCN- was detected in human whole blood. Interestingly, we have found that some of the spiked SeCN- decomposed to cyanide in human whole blood. Ascorbic acid suppressed the decomposition of SeCN- to cyanide by reducing the ferric ion, which is typically involved in SeCN- decomposition. Then, SeCN- was detected in cultured HEK293 cells exposed to selenite. The established HPLC method with fluorescence detection of SeCN- is useful for investigating small amounts of SeCN- in biological samples.