Abstract
A transmission electron microscope is used to detect the presence of small (∼10Å) gaseous and organic inclusions in electrodeposited films. These inclusions are made visible using the defocus contrast technique and their locations and spatial distributions are determined by stereomicroscopy. In this paper, we first describe the historical development in the direct observations, then present optical principles of the defocus imaging technique in detail, and finally give several examples of various types of inclusions from our recent microstructural studies on electrodeposited Au, Cu, and Ni films.
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