Development of Perceived Discrimination Questionnaire: A Measure for Different Social Categories Students

Abstract

INTRODUCTIONPsychologist have long noted that repeated exposure discrimination is psychologically harmful for the target and may contribute well established health disparities between black and white individuals (Mays, Cochram & Branes, 2007). Perception of discrimination increasingly recognized as important psychological realities for ethnic group members (Dion & Kawakame, 1996). Croker & Mojor (1989) point out that negative experiences often unclear for the people belong devalued group. Negative experiences with others could be result of one's lack of merit, inferior qualifications, poor performance or other short comings. It could be result of prejudice and discrimination on one's ethnic identity. Verkuyten (1998) drew on social identity theory distinguish between group self esteem and personal self esteem, suggest the negative effect of perceived discrimination on ethnic self esteem. Individual with low self esteem reported higher level of perceived discrimination. Phinney, Modden & Santos (1998) reported that self esteem has been linked ethnic discrimination.Pasco & Richman (2009) defined that discrimination is a behavioral manifestation of negative attitude, judgment or unfair towards the members of a group. People hold negative attitude towards members of various groups and cannot express these view directly. Law, social pressure, fear of revenge and all related serve deter people putting their prejudice view into open practice. Therefore, obvious form of discrimination is revealed as negative action towards the object of racial ethnic or religious prejudice (Swimm & Stangor, 1998). Discrimination is a prejudicial treatment of an individual based on his/her membership in a certain group or category. It involves group initial reaction or interaction, influencing the individual's actual behavior towards groups, restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available another group, leading exclusion of the individual or entities based on logical or irrational decision making.Dovideo & Heble (2005) states that discrimination behavior manifests at least two level: individual discrimination and institutional discrimination. Individual discrimination defined as to deny individuals or group of people equality of treatment which they wish (Allport 1954/79). It expressed between individual on the basis of their salient group identities. A person discriminates against another or the ground of his/her membership. Allport suggests five gradations of negative out group behaviors: verbal discrimination, avoidance, discrimination, physical attack and extermination. Institutional discrimination described manifested form of unfair treatment of minority group in society's individual attitude (Antronovskey 1960, Lewin & Lewin, 1982). This kind of discrimination is rooted in rules, procedure and action of social institutions (Sidanious and Pratto, 1999).Researches on perceived discrimination have been investigated by the experience of discrimination from the target group. Target of discrimination is associated with reduced well being and long term of negative consequences for physical and mental health (Major, Quinton & Mc Coy, 2002). Wirth & Williams (2009) suggested that attributing negative social treatment discrimination is distressing because discrimination is due an internal characteristics of the target (discrimination is due 'race'), which cannot be changed and might therefore lead future instances of discrimination. Jost, Banaji & Nosek (2004) argued that disadvantage group may be likely hold belief that legitimize the current social structure and that structure can hurt their group and their personally. The avoidance support the idea that people tend rationalize the status quo, this mean that, the extent that they see the system as legitimate members of high status groups would be more likely favor the ingroup, but members of low status groups would be more likely favor the out group. …