Detection of venom–antivenom (VAV) immunocomplexes in vitro as a measure of antivenom efficacy

Abstract

The measurement of free venom with enzyme immunoassay in serum of patients with snake envenoming is used to confirm snake identification and to determine if sufficient antivenom has been given. Recent studies with Russell's viper (RV; Daboia russelii) envenoming have detected free venom post-antivenom despite recovery of coagulopathy. This raises the question as to whether this assay also measures venom–antivenom (VAV) complexes. In this study we developed an assay to measure VAV complexes and investigate the binding of venom and antivenom in vitro. The assay consisted of rabbit anti-snake venom IgG attached to a microplate which binds the venom component of VAV and anti-horse IgG antibodies conjugated to horseradish peroxidase to detect the antivenom portion of VAV. A known amount of venom or toxin was incubated with increasing antivenom concentrations and VAV was detected as absorbance at 450 nm and plotted against AV concentration. Pseudonaja textilis (brown snake), Notechis scutatus (tiger snake), Oxyuranus scutellatus (taipan), Tropidechis carinatus (rough-scaled snake), Pseudechis porphyriacus (red-bellied black snake) and D. russelii mixtures with appropriate antivenoms were assayed. Measured VAV initially increased with increasing antivenom concentration until it reached a maximum after which the VAV concentration decreased with further increasing antivenom concentrations. The VAV curves for two Australian snake venom–antivenom mixtures, Hoplocephalus stephensii and Ancanthophis antarcticus, had broad VAV peaks with two maxima. Two fractions isolated from N. scutatus venom and Russell's viper factor X activator toxin produced similar VAV curves to their whole venoms. The antivenom concentration for which the maximum VAV occurred was linearly related to the venom concentration, and this slope or ratio was consistent with that used to define the neutralisation units for Australian antivenoms. The maximal VAV point appears to represent the antivenom concentration where every venom molecule (toxin) is attached to at least one antivenom molecule (antibody) on average and may be a useful measure of antivenom efficacy. In vivo this would mean that for a defined antivenom concentration, venom components will be eliminated and are trapped in the central compartment.