Depression and anxiety in adolescent and young adult offenders: A longitudinal study from 13 to 32 years using the Australian Temperament Project

Abstract

A substantial body of research indicates significant individual variability in across-time patterns of offending behaviour (Farrington, Piquero, & Jennings, 2013; Moffitt, 1993). Some researchers contend that these patterns reflect distinct categories of offenders, with different life-course patterns of antisocial behaviour (e.g. Farrington et al., 2013; Moffitt, 1993). Although estimates of the number and profiles of these groups differ, most studies suggest that the vast majority of offenders engage in more minor offenses in the short-term, whereas a smaller number (e.g. ~5%; Moffitt, 1993) engage in relatively high levels of offending throughout their lives. These seemingly persistent, life-course offenders are at risk of a range of adverse life experiences, including school failure, job instability, failed relationships, and injury (e.g. Odgers et al., 2008; Piquero, Farrington, Nagin, & Moffitt, 2010). They also suffer from increased risks of morbidity and mortality from injury and disease relative to non-offenders or those people for whom involvement in crime and delinquency is relatively short-lived (Jennings, Rocque, Fox, Piquero, & Farrington, 2016; Moffit, Caspi, Harrington, & Milne, 2002; Odgers et al., 2008; Piquero, Shepherd, Shepherd, & Farrington, 2011). Less is known about mental health outcomes of offenders (Piquero et al., 2011). Those exceptions have been based on a handful of well-known samples and conducted in a limited number of different settings; hence, much of what is known about the mental health of different offending profiles reflects the experiences of a small number of offenders. Previous studies have also focused disproportionately on mental health in middle adulthood, neglecting the development of mental health problems from adolescence to early adulthood in young people following different patterns of offending. Given that affective and anxiety disorders peak in adolescence and early adulthood (Kessler et al., 1994), a deeper understanding of the mental health profiles of different groups of offenders is needed from adolescence into young adulthood.