Depression among Older Parents: The Role of Intergenerational Exchange

Abstract

Many studies (e.g., Lee & Ishii-Kuntz, 1987) have reported that psychological well-being of older persons is unrelated to frequency of interaction with adult children. This' does not necessarily mean that relations with children are irrelevant to psychological well-being of elderly parents, however, given that many facets of such relations are not captured by simplistic measures such as frequency of interaction (Mancini & Blieszner, 1989). The exchange of assistance between parents and children is a division of intergenerational relations that may indicate extent and depth of generations' mutual commitment. It has been examined with Some frequency in relation to various dimensions of psychological well-being of aging parents. However, results have been mixed and difficult to interpret. Stoller (1985), in a widely cited study, found that parents who provided aid to their children were less depressed than those who did not. She argued that it is the inability to reciprocate, rather than need for assistance, [that] undermines morale of older person (1985, p. 341). Wentkowski (1981) also found a positive relationship between reciprocation and self-esteem among older persons. is consistent with Dowd's (1975, 1980) application of exchange theory to intergenerational relations, in which he has argued that diminishing resources in old age leave elders in unbalanced exchange relations. The inability to reciprocate services received from others means that elders become dependent and powerless, and are thus demoralized (see also Lee, 1985). Other studies, however, have not supported this finding. Mutran and Reitzes (1984) found that older widows' negative affect is decreased by aid received from children and increased by aid given to children. suggests that, for older widowed women at least, being cared for by children is psychologically gratifying, while helping children is costly. No relations between exchange patterns and affect were found for married elders, however. Several other studies (Dwyer, Lee, & Jankowski, 1994; Lee & Ellithorpe, 1982; McCulloch, 1990) have found no relation whatsoever between patterns of intergenerational exchange and psychological well-being of older persons. Collectively, therefore, previous research offers little basis for generalization. is undoubtedly due in large part to usual differences in sampling and measurement across relevant studies. However, it is also possible that critical variables have been omitted from these studies, resulting in misspecification of models. One potentially relevant variable is concept of filial responsibility expectations, or extent to which adult children are believed to be obligated to assist aging parents (see Seelbach, 1977, 1984). Elderly parents--indeed, persons of all ages--vary substantially in extent to which they believe that adult children should support and assist their parents, or, conversely, that elderly parents are entitled to assistance from their children. Few studies have considered effects of aid exchanged between generations in context of older parents' expectations for assistance. However, at least three studies (Kerckhoff, 1966; Quinn, 1983; Seelbach $ Sauer, 1977) have found negative relations between parents' expectations and parents' psychological well-being. None of these studies attempted an empirical explanation of this relationship, though all speculated about its possible cause. Quinn (1983), for example, commented, This may be explained to some extent by potential conflicts and disappointments which may occur if older parents' expectations of their offspring are not met... (p. 66). However, he included no measures of intergenerational exchange in his model, so his hypothetical explanation could not be tested. Lee, Netzer, and Coward (1994) examined relation between older parents' filial responsibility expectations and patterns of intergenerational assistance. …