Abstract

 
 
 
 By 2030, we should have universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible green and public places, especially for women and children, the elderly, and people with disabilities, according to the Sustainable Development Goals. However, the increasing privatisation of land and gentrification of the urban landscape is putting a limit on the amount of public space available for people to express themselves and use the city as they desire. This paper investigates and reviews the literature on defensive architecture, as well as its historical foundations, definitions, implementation, and reason for existence. The findings provide a clear reflection on the growing awareness of extreme defensive landscape architecture typologies such as spikes and other aggressive measures. Finally, the paper offers worldwide best-practice examples and recommendations for ensuring inclusion and safety in public spaces. We argue that in order to design sustainable public spaces, a holistic approach that considers both intangible values and social inclusion is required.
 
 
 
Highlights
There is an agreement in the literature about the COVID-19 urban areas, theorise that hyperlocalism functions and benefits of modern public spaces and homeworking will increase, this will have a det-(Mandeli, 2019)
The Habitat III Conference in Qui- rimental effect on traditional high-street retail with to (October 2016) established a New Urban Agenda an increasing trend in online shopping, which in turn, that recognised the importance of public spaces as will require these public spaces to adapt, repurposa component of urban development, calling them ing urban spaces from being consumer-centric land
Due to public spaces growth towards gentrification, urban spaces are becoming increasingly restrictive, not just towards the unhoused and skateboarding communities and to other groups who are deemed to counter the modern image and economical demands of these new urban capitalist spaces. This has resulted in groups such as the elderly, those with disabilities, the young and those who are on the lower economic end of society finding it increasingly challenging to find public spaces to occupy
Summary
There is an agreement in the literature about the COVID-19 urban areas, theorise that hyperlocalism functions and benefits of modern public spaces and homeworking will increase, this will have a det-(Mandeli, 2019). There is an agreement in the literature about the COVID-19 urban areas, theorise that hyperlocalism functions and benefits of modern public spaces and homeworking will increase, this will have a det-. COVID-19 would exacerbate implications for from its roots in Ancient Greece, pub- the most vulnerable in society, toughening access lic space was founded on social interactions, trad- to good quality open public space which is especially ing and politics, exclusion of social groups was al- tough on highly dependent spatial users such as the so a feature of the time, with this space exclusive- homeless Tunity to rethink places and spaces, to create more it appears not much has changed, with the major- liveable cities for all, while increasing their ity overruling the minority through consumer sup- healthy use (Sepe, 2021).
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