Contribution of smallholder agriculture to daily calories, macronutrients, minerals and vitamins in male- and female-headed farm households in sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

This chapter analyzes the role of gender in food security, using data from Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. We distinguish among male-headed households (MHHs), de jure female-headed households (unmarried, widowed or divorced) and de facto female-headed households (husband is absent). First, we show the role that smallholder crop farming plays in providing calories and other nutrients. We find that the average smallholder household consumes about half of the food crops that it produces, and that its own production provides somewhat less than half of the calories that the household needs to consume; although production levels are similar in all countries, there are wide variations in the proportion of food kept for home consumption. In addition, smallholder crop farming provides macronutrients (protein and fat), minerals and vitamins. Second, we find that MHHs enjoy a consumption advantage over female-headed households (FHHs); the gaps are higher between MHHs and de facto FHHs than between MHHs and de jure FHHs. However, members in MHHs and FHHs consume similar amounts of vitamins, suggesting that they benefit almost equally from fruit tree farming. This reflects the fact that men are more likely to raise cash crops, including wheat, which has high levels of macronutrients and minerals; by contrast, female farmers are more likely to raise food crops. Third, we compare rural and urban areas. In rural areas, the gaps between MHHs and de facto FHHs are higher than the gaps between MHHs and de jure FHHs. In urban areas, the male-female gaps are similar regardless of de facto or de jure status. An exception is vitamins, for which the gender gap for de jure households is higher in urban than rural areas. The gaps are smallest among vitamins in both rural and urban areas. In sum, agricultural policies will be more effective if attention is paid to nutrients, location, gender and household structure.