Abstract
In recent decades, the area and proportion of planted forests have increased; thus, understanding the responses of planted and natural forests to drought are crucial because it forms the basis for forest risk assessments and management strategies. In this study, we combined the moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) enhanced vegetation index (EVI), meteorological aridity indices, and standardized precipitation evapotranspiration indices (SPEI) to identify the drought responses of planted and natural forests. In particular, we used the EVI standard anomaly (ESA) as a physiological drought indicator and analyzed the applicability of SPEIs at time scales of 1–30 months, thereby determining the optimal time scale for the SPEI (SPEIopt), i.e., the SPEI that best represents the drought responses of forests in Yunnan. Next, we employed the optimal SPEI and the ESA as indices to statistically analyze the response characteristics of planted and natural forests under different drought intensities. The results indicated the following: (1) The SPEI in June and a time scale of five months (i.e., SPEIJun,5) comprise the optimal meteorological aridity indicator for forests in Yunnan Province, which had the strongest correlation with the EVI standard anomaly (ESAJun). (2) All forest types were affected by drought in Yunnan, but their responses varied according to the forest type, elevation, and drought intensity. In general, natural forests are more vulnerable and sensitive to drought than planted forests, especially natural coniferous forests at low (0–2000 m) and moderate (2000–4000 m) altitudes, and natural mixed forest at low altitudes (0–2000 m). (3) The remote sensing-based ESA (ESAJun) is sensitive to the intensity of water stress, which makes it a good indicator for drought monitoring. In addition, the forests’ inventory survey revealed that 8.05% of forests were affected by drought; thus, we used this as a guide to estimate an approximate threshold to map forest responses to drought across the region. Below this approximate threshold (i.e., ESAJun < −3.85), severe drought-induced effects on forests may occur. Given that natural forests are more vulnerable and sensitive to drought than the planted forests, natural forests need more careful management, especially in the context of projected increases in extreme drought events in the future.
Highlights
Climate change can affect forests in many ways, including loss of biodiversity, altitude shifts in species’ ranges, and subsequent community reshuffling [1], but one of the most important directRemote Sens. 2016, 8, 635; doi:10.3390/rs8080635 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensingRemote Sens. 2016, 8, 635 impacts of climate change is water limitation [2]
The standardized precipitation evapotranspiration indices (SPEI) calculated using the Penman, Monteith, and Thornthwaite algorithm only differed slightly in Yunnan Province [51], and our previous study showed that the SPEI calculated by Thorthwaite could effectively characterize the drought intensity of Yunnan [43], while previous studies indicated that the impacts of precipitation apparently have a time-lag effect that ranges from several months [43,52,53] to two years [39], so we extended this by half a year to ensure that it had the optimal time-scale
The results indicated that scale for SPEI was crucial when using it as an indicator of drought intensity
Summary
Climate change can affect forests in many ways, including loss of biodiversity, altitude shifts in species’ ranges, and subsequent community reshuffling [1], but one of the most important directRemote Sens. 2016, 8, 635; doi:10.3390/rs8080635 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensingRemote Sens. 2016, 8, 635 impacts of climate change is water limitation [2]. Drought may affect the leaf area index, productivity, biomass [4,7,8], and even cause the death of trees by hydraulic failure or carbon starvation [8,9,10], where the ecological mechanisms responsible are as follows. If the water deficit exceeds a tree’s ability to cope and acclimatize, the hydraulic limits will cause partial foliar dieback [11] until the hydraulic conductivity of the xylem approaches zero and this results in 100% defoliation [13]. If they survive a drought, forest trees may exhibit a mechanism for drought resistance [11]
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