Abstract
Human milk contains prebiotic components, such as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), which stimulate the growth of specific members of the infant gut microbiota (e.g., Bifidobacteria). Plant-based or synthetic oligosaccharides are often added to infant formulas to simulate the bifidogenic effect of HMOs. Cow milk, the most common source of protein in infant formula, and goat milk, used increasingly in the manufacture of infant formula, contain naturally-occurring prebiotics. This study compared the upper gastrointestinal digestion and subsequent colonic fermentation of human milk vs. goat and cow milk-based infant formulas (goat IF and cow IF, respectively), without additional oligosaccharides using an in vitro model for 3-month-old infants based on the Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME®). First, a dialysis approach using 3.5 kDa membranes was demonstrated to simulate small intestinal absorption of carbohydrates in conditions similar to those in vivo. During the in vitro digestion experiment, oligosaccharides were detected in human milk and goat IF but barely detected in the cow IF. Further, all three milk matrices decreased colonic pH by boosting acetate, lactate, and propionate production, which related to increased abundances of acetate/lactate-producing Bifidobacteriaceae for human milk (+25.7%) and especially goat IF (33.8%) and cow IF (37.7%). Only cow IF stimulated butyrate production which correlated with an increase in Lachnospiraceae and Clostridiaceae. Finally, Enterobacteriaceae and Acidaminococcaceae also increased with all three milk matrices, while production of proteolytic metabolites (branched-chain fatty acids) was only detected for the cow IF. Overall, goat and cow milk-based formulas without added oligosaccharides impacted gut microbial activity and composition similarly to human milk. This suggests that even without supplementation of formula with oligosaccharides, whole goat milk, whole cow milk and cow milk ingredients already supply compounds in formulas that exert beneficial bifidogenic effects. Further clinical research is warranted to elucidate the effect of whole goat milk-based formulas on the infant gut microbiome.
Highlights
Microbial communities inhabit the human bowel and carry out diverse and complex biochemical processing of compounds that escape digestion and absorption along the upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
Some evidence suggests that Bifidobacteria and the production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by gut bacteria may protect against the development of allergy in infants [2, 3, 11]
While there were no significant differences between the formula groups in Abbreviations: BCFA, branched-chain fatty acids; GIT, gastrointestinal tract; HMO, human milk oligosaccharide; HPAEC-PAD, high-pressure anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection; IF infant formula; MFGM, milk fat globule membrane; SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; : SHIME, simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem
Summary
Microbial communities inhabit the human bowel and carry out diverse and complex biochemical processing of compounds that escape digestion and absorption along the upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The human gut microbial communities are established just after birth and strongly affected by subsequent dietary patterns such as breastfeeding or formula feeding and introduction of solid food [1,2,3]. With respect to the infant diet, compounds with interesting prebiotic function are human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). Due to their ability to resist acidic gastric conditions and enzymatic degradation in the upper GIT, they can exert their prebiotic effect in the lower GIT by acting as nutrients and promoting the growth of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli in the colon [3, 5,6,7]. Some evidence suggests that Bifidobacteria and the production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by gut bacteria may protect against the development of allergy in infants [2, 3, 11]
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