Abstract
Batteries account for a significant share of the life cycle impact of electric vehicles (EV). Nonetheless, the circularity and environmental performance of EV batteries remains underexplored in the literature. This paper compares the circularity (Circularity Index and Product Circularity Indicator) and environmental performance (Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Abiotic Depletion Potential of minerals (ADPm)) of lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries subjected to pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy recycling. Lifetime extension, improved energy efficiency, and material recovery ratios were also calculated to identify the optimal battery design. The findings show that NMC batteries are 6–25% more circular and environmentally sustainable (<4–6% GWP and <13–16% ADPm) than LFP batteries, primarily due to better material recovery ratios. Moreover, the longer lifetime of LFP does not sufficiently offset resource and environmental impacts. Finally, the study discusses the results to support circular and environmental innovation in EV battery design.
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