Abstract
The shoreline of Malaysia is exposed to threats of coastal erosion and a rise of sea level. The National Coastal Erosion Study, 2015 reported that 15% of an 8840 km shoreline is currently eroding, where one-third of those falls under the critical and significant categories that require structural protection. The Study of Sea Level Rise in Malaysia, 2017 presented a sea-level increase of 0.67–0.74 mm on average yearly. This study reviewed selected coastal protection structures along the shoreline of Malaysia as an erosion control and sea-level rise adaptation based on coastal management strategies. Hard structures such as rock revetment and breakwater are commonly used as erosion protection systems in the “hold the line” strategy. Increased platform level of seawalls and earth bunds, considered as an “adaptation” approach, are effective in erosion protection and are adaptive to sea-level rise. Mangrove replanting is suitable as a “limited intervention” approach in minimizing the long-term impact of both threats. However, offshore breakwater, groyne, and geotextile tubes are solely for protection purposes and are not as effective for sea-level rise adaptation. As the sea level is continuously increasing, their function as coastal protection will also become less effective. In summary, this comprehensive review on coastal protection in Malaysia will benefit the related agencies on the future assessment.
Highlights
As a maritime nation, Malaysia’s shoreline is consistently exposed to threats from the ocean, resulting in coastal erosion and sea-level rise
Coastal management board authority plays a vital role in planning sustainable development and environmental protection and encouraging public awareness to reduce the impact of coastal erosion [88,89]
The coastline of Malaysia is exposed to threats of coastal erosion, especially during monsoon seasons
Summary
Malaysia’s shoreline is consistently exposed to threats from the ocean, resulting in coastal erosion and sea-level rise. The country is located near the equator in Southeast Asia where its major ports are situated within international maritime and shipping routes [1] It is surrounded by seven sea areas where the total sea area is almost twice the land area [2]. More than 20% of Malaysia’s coastal zones have been developed mainly for urbanization and tourism purposes [15], as it is the centre of economic activities comprising aquaculture, agriculture, industries, and oil and gas exploitation [16,17] These threats severely affect the coastal areas due to land encroachment and inundation, especially with regards to the ageing of coastal structures due to chronic and acute weather exposure accelerating infrastructure degradation and projected increased population residing in coastal urban areas [18,19,20]. Alternatives to soft engineering methods or ecological-based approaches (EbA) such as beach nourishment and mangrove replanting are favored [26]
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