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Abstract
The adaptation and progress of 3D printing technology toward 3D bioprinting (specifically adapted to biomedical purposes) has opened the door to a world of new opportunities and possibilities in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In this regard, 3D bioprinting allows for the production of tailor-made constructs and organs as well as the production of custom implants and medical devices. As it is a growing field of study, currently, the attention is heeded on the optimization and improvement of the mechanical and biological properties of the so-called bioinks/biomaterial inks. One of the strategies proposed is the use of inorganic ingredients (clays, hydroxyapatite, graphene, carbon nanotubes and other silicate nanoparticles). Clays have proven to be useful as rheological and mechanical reinforcement in a wide range of fields, from the building industry to pharmacy. Moreover, they are naturally occurring materials with recognized biocompatibility and bioactivity, revealing them as optimal candidates for this cutting-edge technology. This review deals with the use of clays (both natural and synthetic) for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine through 3D printing and bioprinting. Despite the limited number of studies, it is possible to conclude that clays play a fundamental role in the formulation and optimization of bioinks and biomaterial inks since they are able to improve their rheology and mechanical properties, thus improving printability and construct resistance. Additionally, they have also proven to be exceptionally functional ingredients (enhancing cellular proliferation, adhesion, differentiation and alignment), controlling biodegradation and carrying/releasing actives with tissue regeneration therapeutic activities.
Highlights
Bearing in mind some factors already discussed in this review, we hypothesize that this ineffective influence of LAP over mechanical properties could be potentially related to inadequate clay concentration or improper clay dispersion [63]
3DBP enables the preparation of new dosage forms, tailor-made devices and implants, tailor-made scaffolds for tissue engineering (TE) and many other individualized therapy options
Functionalized or organo-modified layered phyllosilicates are more prone to intercalate macromolecules within the interlayer space. This ability was proven to enhance the mechanical properties of macromolecules such as polymers; Fibrous and tubular clay minerals were proven to enhance the mechanical properties of certain macromolecules by adjusting their orientation within the inkjet; Due to the chemical composition of clay minerals, they are promising materials for bone TE, with being able to provide mechanical resistance and to trigger osteoinduction;
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in NanoBioCel Group, Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country. Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
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