Abstract
Earth observation is diversifying, and now includes new types of systems, such as citizen observatories, unmanned aerial vehicles and wireless sensor networks. However, the Copernicus Programme vision of a seamless chain from satellite data to usable information in the hands of decision makers is still largely unrealized, and remote sensing science lacks a conceptual framework to explain why. This paper reviews the literatures on citizen science, citizen observatories and conceptualization of remote sensing systems. It then proposes a Conceptual Framework for Earth Observation which can be used in a new Earth observation science to explain blockages in the chain from collecting data to disseminating information in any Earth observation system, including remote sensing systems. The framework differs from its predecessors by including social variables as well as technological and natural ones. It is used here, with evidence from successful citizen science projects, to compare the factors that are likely to influence the effectiveness of satellite remote sensing systems and citizen observatories. The paper finds that constraints on achieving the seamless “Copernicus Chain” are not solely technical, as assumed in the new Space Strategy for Europe, but include social constraints too. Achieving the Copernicus Chain will depend on the balance between: (a) the ‘forward’ momentum generated by the repetitive functioning of each component in the system, as a result of automatic operation or human institutions, and by the efficiency of interfaces between components; and (b) the ‘backward’ flow of information on the information needs of end users. Citizen observatories will face challenges in components which for satellite remote sensing systems are: (a) automatic or straightforward, e.g., sensor design and launch, data collection, and data products; and (b) also challenging, e.g., data processing. Since citizen observatories will rely even more on human institutions than remote sensing systems to achieve repetitive functioning, one of their greatest strengths—using a “crowd” of hand-held sensors to cover large areas—could also be one of their greatest weaknesses.
Highlights
The scope of Earth observation is diversifying
To understand the reasons for this problem, and find how to solve it, will require the development of conceptual frameworks or models that can analyse the contributions which Earth observation systems make “for society and in society”, to use the words of Mathieu and Desnos [7]. This is being recognized by leading space agencies, through such initiatives as “Satellites for Society” [14]. To address these issues this paper shows how an existing conceptual framework of remote sensing systems can be extended to encompass all Earth observation systems, and be used to evaluate the effectiveness with which data collected by sensors in these systems are converted into usable information in line with the Copernicus vision
This paper has shown how extending the scope of an existing conceptual framework of remote sensing systems, especially by adding a social dimension, can greatly increase its power to explain factors which limit the effectiveness of a satellite remote sensing system, or any other Earth observation system, such as a citizen observatory
Summary
The scope of Earth observation is diversifying. Over the last ten years, imaging sensors carried on satellites have continued to expand in number and type, and there have been three new developments.First, the potential for using Landsat to measure ecosystem area at global scale is being realized, facilitated by the free availability of Landsat data, and the development of computing technologies that can process thousands of images quickly and turn the continuous collection of global data by Landsat into streams of global information. Over the last ten years, imaging sensors carried on satellites have continued to expand in number and type, and there have been three new developments. This section uses the Conceptual Framework for Earth Observation (CFEO) to compare the factors which influence the effectiveness of satellite remote sensing systems and citizen observatories. The two particular cases evaluated here are the satellite monitoring of tropical forest area change, for which historical empirical information is available, and a potential European citizen tree observatory. Many of these experiences are still to be analysed and published.
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