Characterizing the immune responses of those who survived or succumbed to COVID-19: Can immunological signatures predict outcome?

Abstract

BackgroundImmunodeficiency has pivotal role in the pathogenesis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Several studies have indicated defects in the immune system of COVID-19 patients at different disease stages. Therefore, this study investigated whether alters in immune responses of COVID-19 patients may be considered as predicting factors for disease outcome. MethodsThe percentages of innate and adoptive immune cells in the recovered and dead patients with COVID-19, and healthy subjects were determined by flow cytometry. The levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and other immune factors were also measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. ResultsAt the first day of hospitalization, the frequencies of CD56dim CD16+ NK cells and CD56bright CD16dim/− NK cells in patients who died during treatment were significantly increased compared to recovered and healthy individuals (P < 0.0001). The recovered and dead patients had a significant increase in monocyte number in comparison with healthy subjects (P < 0.05). No significant change was observed in Th1 cell numbers between the recovered and dead patients while Th2, Th17 cell, and Treg percentages in death cases were significantly lower than healthy control and those recovered, unlike exhausted CD4 + and CD8 + T cells and activated CD4 + T cells (P < 0.0001–0.05). The activated CD8 + T cell was significantly higher in the recovered patients than healthy individuals (P < 0.0001–0.05). IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in patients were significantly increased (P < 0.0001–0.01). However, there were no differences in TNF-α and IL-1β levels between dead and recovered patients. Unlike TGF-β1 level, IL-10 was significantly increased in recovered patients (P < 0.05). Lymphocyte numbers in recovered patients were significantly increased compared to dead patients, unlike ESR value (P < 0.001–0.01). CRP value in recovered patients significantly differed from dead patients (P < 0.001). ConclusionChanges in frequencies of some immune cells and levels of some immune factors may be considered as predictors of mortality in COVID-19 patients.