Abstract
Abstract Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are common examples of lipids classified as long n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are mainly found in fish such as salmon, mackerel, clupea, sardine, and tuna. In contrast, the short n-3 PUFA alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is present in a variety of plant-based foods such as flaxseed, canola, and walnuts. n-3 PUFA is typically ingested upon consumption of these foods, whereas DHA and EPA can be synthesized from ALA in the human body. Numerous epidemiologic studies have indicated an inverse relationship between the consumption of n-3 PUFA and cardiovascular disease (CVD). In addition, n-3 PUFA has been shown to exhibit anticancer, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidepressive, antiaging, and antiarthritic effects. The beneficial health effects of dietary n-3 PUFA, specifically DHA and EPA, on CVD are well recognized and have been studied extensively. Moreover, DHA and EPA have been reported to exhibit distinct effects on heart rate. DHA can block the development of inflammation in endothelial cells, alter the function and regulation of vascular biomarkers, and inhibit cardiovascular risk. Possible mechanisms of n-3 PUFA include the inhibition of vasoconstrictor prostanoids, induction of the production and/or release of nitric oxide (NO), reduction in plasma noradrenaline, changes in calcium flux, antioxidative actions, and increases in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). DHA may, therefore, promote vasodilation via NO production in endothelial cells. Furthermore, the antiinflammatory and antioxidative effects of n-3 PUFA are associated with a reduction in risk factors associated with CVD. Herein, we review the effects and mechanisms of dietary n-3 PUFA such as DHA, EPA, and ALA on CVD.
Published Version
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