Abstract
This chapter examines the principal ways in which light, X-rays, electrons, and neutrons are used to explore the structure of metals. A light microscope provides the two-dimensional representation of a structure over a total magnification range of roughly ×40 to ×1250. The main components of a bench-type microscope are (1) an illumination system comprising a light source and variable apertures, (2) an objective lens and an ocular lens (eyepiece) mounted at the ends of a cylindrical body tube, and (3) a specimen stage (fixed or rotatable). The chapter discusses several microscopical techniques such as phase-contrast microscopy, polarized-light microscopy, hot-stage microscopy, and microhardness testing. The equations for the Vickers hardness and Knoop hardness in microhardness testing are solved in the chapter. When measuring absolute hardness rather than relative hardness, it is useful to consider the material's behavior in terms of the Meyer equation. The chapter describes several X-ray diffraction methods such as the Laue method, powder method, X-ray diffractometry, and X-ray topography.
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