Abstract
Transplantation of human kidneys to humans is the best way to treat end-stage renal disease, but it is limited by organ availability that is much lower than need. The use of animal kidneys in lieu of human organs (xenotransplantation of the kidney) has long been proposed as an alternative. Its clinical history dates to the early twentieth century. Humoral and cellular rejection and coagulopathy complicate the xenotransplantation of whole kidneys in the clinically relevant pig-to-nonhuman primate model. However, life can be prolonged in otherwise anephric recipients. Some of these complications might be overcome by using embryonic kidneys in lieu of developed organs. Renal primordia are preprogrammed to attract a vasculature and differentiate into an anatomically precise kidney after transplantation into the mesentery of hosts. Here, we provide a broad historical perspective for xenotransplantation of fully developed and developing kidneys as a means to treat end-stage renal disease.
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