Cerebral Cortex Generated from Pluripotent Stem Cells to Model Corticogenesis and Rebuild Cortical Circuits: In Vitro Veritas?

Abstract

Organoids and cells generated in vitro from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are considered to be robust models of development and a conceivable source of transplants for putative cell therapy. However, a fundamental question about organoids and cells generated from PSCs is as follows: do they faithfully reproduce the in vivo tissue they are supposed to mimic and replace? This question is particularly relevant to complex tissues such as the cerebral cortex. In this review, we have tackled this issue by comparing cerebral cortices generated in vitro from PSCs to the in vivo cortex, with a particular focus on their respective cellular composition, molecular and epigenetic signatures, and brain connectivity. In short, in vitro cortex generated from PSCs reproduces most of the cardinal features of the in vivo cortex, including temporal corticogenesis and connectivity when PSC-derived cortical cells are grafted in recipient mouse cortex. However, compared to in vivo cortex, in vitro cortex lacks microglia and blood vessels and is less mature. Recent experiments show that the brain of the transplanted host provides these missing cell types together with an environment that promotes the synaptic maturation of the cortical transplant. Taken together, these data suggest that corticogenesis is largely intrinsic and well recapitulated in vitro, while the full maturation of cortical cells requires additional environmental clues. Finally, we propose some lines of work to improve corticogenesis from PSCs as a tool to model corticogenesis and rebuild cortical circuits.