Abstract
Cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics are micro/nanosystems that combine an isolated cell membrane and a template of choice to mimic the functions of a cell. The design exploits its physicochemical and biological properties for therapeutic applications. The mimics demonstrate excellent biological compatibility, enhanced biointerfacing capabilities, physical, chemical, and biological tunability, ability to retain cellular properties, immune escape, prolonged circulation time, and protect the encapsulated drug from degradation and active targeting. These properties and the ease of adapting them for personalized clinical medicine have generated a significant research interest over the past decade. This review presents a detailed overview of the recent advances in the development of cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics. The primary focus is to collate and discuss components, fabrication methodologies, and the significance of physiochemical and biological characterization techniques for validating a CMC mimic. We present a critical analysis of the two main components of CMC mimics: the template and the cell membrane and mapped their use in therapeutic scenarios. In addition, we have emphasized on the challenges associated with CMC mimics in their clinical translation. Overall, this review is an up to date toolbox that researchers can benefit from while designing and characterizing CMC mimics.
Highlights
Cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics are micro/nanosystems that combine an isolated cell membrane and a template of choice to mimic the functions of a cell
We focus on providing a detailed insight into the various aspects of designing cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics
Red blood cells (RBCs) transmembrane express protein cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47), known as the ‘do not eat me’ marker,[108] selectively binds to signal-regulatory protein alpha (SIRPα) glycoprotein expressed by macrophages to prevent its uptake.[109,110]
Summary
The cell membrane is the outermost protective layer of a cell with a thickness of around 5−10 nm, mainly composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, and it interacts and performs complex biological functions with the surrounding environment for survival and proliferation.[80,81] Bilayer assembly of lipids incorporates structural rigidity and fluidity,[82] while carbohydrates are responsible for cellular recognition,[83,84] and proteins play a vital part in signaling and adhesion, briefly.[85]. Red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant cell type of the human body, with the longest circulation time of approximately 120 days.[107] RBCs transmembrane express protein cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47), known as the ‘do not eat me’ marker,[108] selectively binds to signal-regulatory protein alpha (SIRPα) glycoprotein expressed by macrophages to prevent its uptake.[109,110] RBCs are responsible for oxygen transport to various tissues and organs in the body[111] and are involved in pathogen removal by oxycytosis.[112] Their membrane is rich in glycophorins that attract pathogens to their surface to release oxygen for killing them.[113] coating the template with an RBC membrane improves long-term circulation,[62] pathogens removal,[64,114] and toxins absorption[115,77] for detoxification applications These specific advantages have popularized the use of RBC membranecoated CMC mimics. Kinematic Polytron PT-2000 homogenizer (power setting 7 for 15 strokes) isolation of membrane ultapure water (20 min) followed by addition of 1.4 M sucrose solution (5 min) Kinematic Polytron PT-2000 homogenizer (power setting 7 and 30 from mitochondria strokes)
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