Carbon Footprint of Inbound Tourism to Iceland: A Consumption-Based Life-Cycle Assessment including Direct and Indirect Emissions

In this study, the urban CO2 emission based on energy consumption (Coal, Petroleum, Electricity, and City Gas) in 16 provincial and metropolitan city governments in South Korea was evaluated. For calculation of the urban CO2 emission, direct and indirect emissions were considered. Direct emissions refer to generation of greenhouse gas (GHG) on-site from the energy consumption. Indirect emissions refer to the use of resources or goods that discharge GHG emissions during energy production. The total GHG emission was 497,083 thousand ton CO2eq. in 2007. In the indirect GHG emission, about 240,388 thousand ton CO2eq. was occurred, as 48% of total GHG emission. About 256,694 thousand ton CO2eq. (52% of total GHG emissions) was produced in the direct GHG emission. This amount shows 13% difference with 439,698 thousand ton CO2eq. which is total national GHG emission data using current calculation method. Local metropolitan governments have to try to get accuracy and reliability for quantifying their GHG emission. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and use Korean emission factors than using the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) emission factors. The method considering indirect and direct GHG emission, which is suggested in this study, should be considered and compared with previous studies.

Whole-farm systems modelling of greenhouse gas emissions from pastoral suckler beef cow production systems

The evaluation of GHG emissions from Shanghai municipal wastewater treatment plants based on IPCC and operational data integrated methods (ODIM)

BackgroundSocietal pressures exist to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from farm animals, especially in beef cattle. Both total GHG and GHG emissions per unit of product decrease as productivity increases. Limitations of previous studies on GHG emissions are that they generally describe feed intake inadequately, assess the consequences of selection on particular traits only, or examine consequences for only part of the production chain. Here, we examine GHG emissions for the whole production chain, with the estimated cost of carbon included as an extra cost on traits in the breeding objective of the production system.MethodsWe examined an example beef production system where economic merit was measured from weaning to slaughter. The estimated cost of the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) associated with feed intake change is included in the economic values calculated for the breeding objective traits and comes in addition to the cost of the feed associated with trait change. GHG emission effects on the production system are accumulated over the breeding objective traits, and the reduction in GHG emissions is evaluated, for different carbon prices, both for the individual animal and the production system.ResultsMultiple-trait selection in beef cattle can reduce total GHG and GHG emissions per unit of product while increasing economic performance if the cost of feed in the breeding objective is high. When carbon price was $10, $20, $30 and $40/ton CO2-e, selection decreased total GHG emissions by 1.1, 1.6, 2.1 and 2.6% per generation, respectively. When the cost of feed for the breeding objective was low, selection reduced total GHG emissions only if carbon price was high (~ $80/ton CO2-e). Ignoring the costs of GHG emissions when feed cost was low substantially increased emissions (e.g. 4.4% per generation or ~ 8.8% in 10 years).ConclusionsThe ability to reduce GHG emissions in beef cattle depends on the cost of feed in the breeding objective of the production system. Multiple-trait selection will reduce emissions, while improving economic performance, if the cost of feed in the breeding objective is high. If it is low, greater growth will be favoured, leading to an increase in GHG emissions that may be undesirable.

By-product and heat-recovery cokemaking technologies each offer the steelmaker different opportunities to develop the steelworks' energy balance with the aim to achieve a lower environmental footprint. This paper discusses the results of a Greenhouse Gas (GHG) footprint study completed by Hatch, comparing the GHG emissions of a conventional by-product coke plant with a heat-recovery coke plant within an integrated steel mill. Natural gas and fuel oil were considered as additional fuel sources where coke oven gas was not available. The study followed the Greenhouse Gas Protocol guidelines and reported direct and indirect GHG emissions from the steel plant. The following were the major findings of the study: A steel mill with a heat-recovery coke plant, a blast furnace that used 100% iron ore pellets and where natural gas was used to supplement the steel plant heat balance emitted the lowest total amount of CO2 (1.96 ton CO2/ton HRC). Total GHG emissions from steel mills with heat-recovery coke plants, using natural gas to supplement the steel plant heat balance were lower than those with by-product coke plants in similar steel mill configurations. Total GHG emissions from steel mills with heat-recovery coke plants, using fuel oil, to supplement the steel mill energy balance were also lower than those with comparable steel mills using a by-product coke plant. An integrated steel mill with a by-product coke plant had the lowest Scope 1 GHG emission that represents the emissions from the steel mill site itself. Evaluation of the electricity production as presented in the Scope 2 GHG emissions was essential to understand the complete carbon footprint story as this significantly improved the overall carbon footprint of the steel mill using a heat recovery cokemaking process. INTRODUCTION Iron and steelmaking are fossil fuel energy intensive processes with the global steel industry accounting for between 4% and 5% of total man-made greenhouse gases. The average CO2 intensity for the steel industry is approximately 2.0 tons of CO2 per ton of steel produced. Taking into consideration global steel production of more than 1.3 billion tons, the steel industry produces over two billion tons of CO2 annually. In the fast growing economies of countries such as Brazil, China and India, a major increase in the volume of steel used/produced is anticipated and as a consequence, increased CO2 emissions will result. In conventional steel production, the first step of ironmaking is to carbonize metallurgical coal into blast furnace coke in a coke plant. The resulting coke is charged together with iron ore (pellets and/or sinter) and fluxes (limestone and dolomite) into a blast furnace where iron ore is transformed or smelted into liquid hot metal and slag. The hot metal is then refined to make liquid steel that is cast and rolled into salable products. The main carbon emissions are from the ironmaking processes; cokemaking, sinter/pellet production and blast furnace ironmaking. To foster an energy-efficient process and reduce the carbon footprint, the steel industry improved existing processes and implemented new process technologies with a special focus on the ironmaking area. By-product and heat-recovery cokemaking technologies each offer the steelmaker different opportunities to develop the steelworks' energy balance with the aim of achieving a smaller environmental footprint. This paper compares the GHG emissions of a conventional by-product coke plant with SunCoke's heat-recovery coke plant within an integrated steel mill. Where coke oven gas was not available, natural gas and fuel oil were considered as additional fuel sources. The study followed the Greenhouse Gas Protocol guidelines and reported both direct and indirect GHG emissions from the steel plant. To objectively compare the effect of the cokemaking process on the overall steel mill carbon footprint, a coke plant, blast furnace, BOF-continuous caster and hot strip mill arrangement were considered. Plant arrangements with and without a sinter plant were evaluated. The steel mill capacity used for this study was 3.1 million ton/annum of hot rolled coil (HRC) based on an annual coke production of 1.1 million tons.

Studies on the sustainability of crop production systems should consider both the carbon (C) footprint and the crop yield. Knowledge is urgently needed to estimate the C cost of maize (Zea mays L.) production in a continuous monoculture or in rotation with a leguminous crop, the popular rotation system in North America. In this study, we used a 19-year field experiment with maize under different levels of synthetic N treatments in a continuous culture or rotation with forage legume (Alfalfa or red clover; Medicago sativa L./Trifolium pratense L.) or soybean (Glycine max L. Merr) to assess the sustainability of maize production systems by estimating total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (kg CO2 eq ha−1) and the equivalent C cost of yield or C footprint (kg CO2 eq kg−1 grain). High N application increased both total GHG emissions and the C footprint across all the rotation systems. Compared to continuous maize monoculture (MM), maize following forage (alfalfa or red clover; FM) or grain (soybean; SM) legumes was estimated to generate greater total GHG emissions, however both FM and SM had a lower C footprint across all N levels due to increased productivity. When compared to MM treated with 100 kg N ha−1, maize treated with 100 kg N ha−1, following a forage legume resulted in a 5 % increase in total GHG emissions while reducing the C footprint by 17 %. Similarly, in 18 out of the 19-year period, maize treated with 100 kg N ha−1, following soybean (SM) had a minimal effect on total GHG emissions (1 %), but reduced the C footprint by 8 %. Compared to the conventional MM with the 200 kg N ha−1 treatment, FM with the 100 kg N ha−1 treatment had 40 % lower total GHG emissions and 46 % lower C footprint. Maize with 100 kg N ha−1 following soybean had a 42 % lower total GHG emissions and 41 % lower C footprint than MM treated with 200 kg N ha−1. Clearly, there was a trade-off among total GHG emissions, C footprint and yield, and yield and GHG emissions or C footprint not linearly related. Our data indicate that maize production with 100 kg N ha−1 in rotation with forage or grain legumes can maintain high productivity while reducing GHG emissions and the C footprint when compared to a continuous maize cropping system with 200 kg N ha−1.

Carbon footprint of a winter wheat-summer maize cropping system under straw and plastic film mulching in the Loess Plateau of China

Climate change poses significant threats to the Russian economy. In this context, it is essential to develop a comprehensive set of measures for mitigating and adapting to climate challenges. The European Union’s Carbon Border Mechanism (CBAM) which is set to take effect in 2026, as well as the potential implementation of similar mechanisms by other countries, pose challenges for carbon-intensive industries. The development of a national system for assessing the carbon footprint, including both direct and indirect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and mechanisms for minimizing these emissions at both sectoral and corporate levels is of critical importance for Russia. This study evaluates the total gross GHG emissions and total GHG emissions per unit of production in eight sectors of the Russian economy using an input–output balance model. Furthermore, it analyzes decarbonization tools employed by major Russian industrial companies, which are leading producers and exporters of carbon-intensive products. Recommendations are provided to improve the mechanisms for low-carbon development of the Russian industries. It is revealed that the energy and mining sectors, as well as manufacturing industries (particularly metallurgy, chemical industry and mineral materials manufacturing) are characterized by high total gross GHG emissions and high total emissions per unit of production. A practical conclusion is the importance of aligning carbon regulation with "smart" "green" industrial policy measures. Such policies should account for cross-sectoral effects and strategically influence production and supply chains to maximize efficiency in reducing emissions with minimal costs. Additionally, these measures should contribute to achieving broader positive socio-economic outcomes.

Health Care and Climate Change: Challenges and Pathways to Sustainable Health Care.

It is of great significance to understand the effects of different rice cultivation methods in southeast China on greenhouse gas emission characteristics and carbon footprint of paddy fields during rice cultivation for rice sustainable production. In this study, the popular conventional rice 'Jiafuzhan' and hybrid rice 'Yongyou 2640' were used as materials to establish four rice cultivation patterns suitable for different ecological types in Fujian Province: 1) double-cropping system, early rice and late rice with Jiafuzhan (D-J); 2) early maturing ratooning system, first season rice and ratooning season rice with Jiafuzhan (R-J); 3) middle-maturing ratooning system, first season rice and ratooning season with Yongyou 2640 (R-Y); and 4) single cropping system with Yongyou 2640 (S-Y), which should be synchronized in heading time with the counterpart (the ratooning season rice). Greenhouse gas emissions from paddy soil were measured by the closed static black box observation method and the gas chromatography method, respectively. The total direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprints) from different rice farming patterns were evaluated by using the life cycle analysis. The results showed that greenhouse gas emissions in different rice cropping systems were lower in the early growth stage, then decreased after reaching the peak at the booting stage, demonstrating a double peak curve in the whole growth stage, in which the first peak was higher in early season or first season than the second peak in the late season or ratooning season in the cropping patterns. Moreover, the total greenhouse gas emissions were significantly different among cropping systems. The global warming potential (GWP) of different cropping patterns was in order of R-Y>D-J>S-Y>R-J, while the annual greenhouse gas emission intensity (GHGI) was D-J>S-Y>R-Y>R-J. GWP and GHGI of the ratooning system decreased by 26.1% and 14.1%, respectively, compared with those of the double-cropping system. The same pattern was observed in the ratooning rice of Yongyou 2640, which were decreased by 74.3% and 56.7%, respectively, compared with the counterpart, Yongyou 2640 in a single-cropping system synchronized heading. Carbon footprint of rice per unit yield ranged from 0.38-1.08 kg CO2-eq.·kg-1 under the different cropping systems, of which the carbon footprint of rice per unit yield was the highest under the double cropping system compared with that under other cropping systems. The reverse was true in the case of carbon footprint of rice per unit yield under the ratooning system with Yongyou 2640. Additionally, the main source of carbon footprint of different rice cropping patterns was CH4, contributing 44.2%-71.5%, suggesting that rice ratooning system could significantly reduce global warming potential and carbon emission intensity of rice in comparison with other cropping patterns. Therefore, it is key to select rice varieties with high yield and low carbon emission and to establish the supporting scientific cultivation techniques for effective reduction of CH4 emission and carbon footprint of paddy fields and promotion of ratooning rice production.

The climate change phenomenon related to the progressive increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is one of the greatest concerns in this century, not only from an environmental point of view, but also as a problem with economic and social effects. Hence, the estimation of the GHG emissions (carbon footprint - CF) is an indicator for supporting carbon efficiency and promotes environmental responsibility, as a baseline for the establishment of mitigation strategies. In this work we performed the first CF estimation exercise in the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL) Sede Manizales, year base 2019, covering three main scopes: direct emissions (fuel consumption of own vehicles, stationary sources and external vehicles), indirect emissions (electricity consumption) and other indirect emissions (disposal of ordinary and special-chemical wastes). For those scopes with detailed base information, the exercise implied the adjustment of emission factors to particular conditions of Manizales city; In addition, a computational code developed in R software allowed us to systematize the analysis procedure of baseline information, coupling a calculation module to estimate the CF in a range of years selected by the user, allowing the automatic generation of figures and numerical results. The results obtained suggest that 386.2 tons of CO2-eq was the total CF estimated in 2019. The use of electricity was the largest contributor with 49% of the total GHG emission, followed by the fuel consumption of own vehicles with 30%. In this specific scope, bus transportation for students, in vehicles which use diesel as fuel, contributed with 57% of GHG emissions. We compare results with other studies at a national and international level based on the estimation of a CF per capita index. The present exercise constitutes a fundamental baseline for the environmental management at UNAL Manizales, also allowing the possibility for applying the methodology and computational tools developed to estimate the CF in other universities in the region.

Disaggregated greenhouse gas emission inventories from agriculture via a coupled economic-ecosystem model

This study aims to assess the carbon footprint for the organization of frozen processed seafood manufacturing plants and propose sustainable strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Organizational activity data from 2024 were utilized to evaluate the carbon footprint and develop targeted mitigation measures. The findings indicate that Scope 1 emissions amounted to 12,685 tons of CO2eq, Scope 2 emissions amounted to 15,403 tons of CO2eq, and Scope 3 emissions amounted to 31,564 tons of CO2eq. The total greenhouse gas emissions across all three scopes were 59,652 tons of CO2eq, with additional greenhouse gas emissions recorded at 34,027 tons of CO2eq. Mitigation measures were considered for activities contributing to at least 10% of emissions in each scope. In Scope 1, the use of R507 refrigerant in the production cooling system accounted for 9907 tons of CO2eq, representing 78.10% of emissions. In Scope 2, electricity consumption contributed 15,403 tons of CO2eq, constituting 100% of emissions. In Scope 3, the procurement of surimi (processed fish meat) was responsible for 20,844 tons of CO2eq, accounting for 66.04% of emissions. Based on these findings, key mitigation strategies were proposed. For Scope 1, reducing emissions involves preventive maintenance of cooling systems to prevent leaks, replacing corroded pipelines, installing shut-off valves, and switching to alternative refrigerants with no greenhouse gas emissions. For Scope 2, energy-saving initiatives include promoting electricity conservation within the organization, maintaining equipment for optimal efficiency, installing energy-saving devices such as variable speed drives (VSD), upgrading to high-efficiency motors, and utilizing renewable energy sources like solar power. For Scope 3, emissions can be minimized by sourcing raw materials from suppliers with certified carbon footprint labels, prioritizing purchases from producers committed to carbon reduction, and selecting suppliers closer to manufacturing sites to reduce transportation-related emissions. Implementing these strategies will contribute to sustainable greenhouse gas emission reductions.

Embedded energy and total greenhouse gas emissions in final consumptions within Thailand

Rationale: Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from crop agriculture are of great concern in the context of changing climatic conditions; however, in most cases, data based on lifecycle assessments are not available for grain yield variations or the carbon footprint of maize. The current study aimed to determine net carbon emissions and sequestration for maize grown in Bangladesh. Methods: The static closed-chamber technique was used to determine total GHG emissions using data on GHG emissions from maize fields and secondary sources for inputs. A secondary source for regional yield data was used in the current study. GHG emission intensity is defined as the ratio of total emissions to grain yield. The net GHG emission/carbon sequestration was determined by subtracting total GHG emissions (CO2 eq.) from net primary production (NPP). Results: Grain yields varied from 1590 to 9300 kg ha−1 in the wet season and from 680 to 11,820 kg ha−1 in the dry season. GHG emission intensities were 0.53–2.21 and 0.37–1.70 kg CO2 eq. kg−1 grain in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. In Bangladesh, the total estimated GHG emissions were 1.66–4.09 million tonnes (MT) CO2 eq. from 2015 to 2020, whereas the net total CO2 sequestration was 1.51–3.91 MT. The net CO2 sequestration rates were 984.3–5757.4 kg ha−1 in the wet season and 1188.62–5757.39 kg ha−1 in the dry season. This study observed spatial variations in carbon emissions and sequestration depending on growing seasons. In the rice–maize pattern, maize sequestered about 1.23 MT CO2 eq. per year−1, but rice emitted about 0.16 MT CO2 eq. per year−1. This study showed potential spatiotemporal variations in carbon footprints. Recommendation: Special care is needed to improve maize grain yields in the wet season. Fertiliser and water use efficiencies need to be improved to minimise GHG emissions under changing climatic conditions. Efforts to increase the area under cultivation with rice–maize or other non-rice crop-based cropping systems are needed to augment CO2 sequestration. The generation of a regional data bank on carbon footprints would be beneficial for combating the impact of climate change.