BİR ORTA ÇAĞ KAYNAĞI OLARAK NOVGOROD KRONİĞİ: TARİHSEL DEĞERİ VE MUHTEVİYATI

Wounds and wartime surgery in the West during the Middle-Ages ; The study of war wounds in the Middle Ages drawn from the accounts of the chroniclers and from chivalric novels suggests that about 50 per cent of wounds affected the head or neck, those to the limbs and the chest coming in second and third place, in about equal proportions. Medical surgery was carried out in Byzantine armies from the VIth century onwards, but the great Greek surgeons disappeared in about the XIth century. In the Latin West a lack of evidence makes it impossible to conjecture the fate of ordinary soldiers wounded in the VIth and VIIth centuries, but it seems likely that only kings and aristocrats benefited from medical care in that period. In contrast, accounts attest that from the VIIth Century the wounded men of victorious armies received medical attention on the battlefield, more often by religious personnel or civilians than by surgeons. From the XIIth Century the presence of surgeons on the battlefield became more noticeable, rank-and-file soldiers fairly regularly enjoying the benefit of their care. From the XIIIth Century the presence of surgeons and doctors with armies grew more commonplace, becoming more or less the norm during the XIVth and XVth centuries. The XIIIth and XIVth centuries were characterised by the existence of formally qualified surgeons of exceptional calibre and competence, whose disappearance is related to the Church’s prohibiting the clergy coming close to any blood. In the second half of the XIVth and XVth centuries it was thus the ‘barber-surgeons’ who carried out surgery on fighting troops ; their initial ignorance gave way in time to an undeniable practical competence and to a certain degree of theoretical knowledge that could gain them the vaunted qualification of barber-surgeon.

Nell’articolo si tratta l’analisi delle tecniche murarie desunta da dati provenienti da ampi progetti di indagine archeologica svolti in ambito rurale nella Toscana occidentale dalla metà degli anni Novanta dello scorso secolo ad oggi. Nel testo si esaminano i cambiamenti dei modi di edificare a partire dall’edilizia in legno dei primi abitati di altura di VII-VIII secolo, sino agli insediamenti più strutturati di seconda metà VIII e IX secolo, caratterizzati da un primo uso della pietra e dalla presenza di maestranze specializzate. In seguito si analizza la più complessa organizzazione del cantiere propria della costruzione dei castelli di XI e XII secolo in rapporto ai poteri politici ed economici delle nascenti signorie territoriali. Un differente uso delle tecniche costruttive caratterizza la successiva formazione di nuovi borghi tra XIII e XIV secolo, spesso impiantati sui preesistenti castelli, legati ai locali organismi comunali, soggetti all’influenza politica ed economica di Pisa in questo territorio.

Research objectives: To identify the main features of the image of the “Tatars” reflected in the narrative sources of Old Russia and other Christian states. Research materials: A body of Russian chronicle sources, historical and literary works of Old Russia (“The Teaching of St. Serapion”, “Zadonshchina”), “The Story of Mikhail and Andronik Palaiologos” by George Pachymeres, the Georgian chronograph “Zhamta agmtsereli”, “The History of the Nation of Archers” by the monk, Magakia, “The History of Armenia” by Kirakos Gandzaketsi, “Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament about the Destruction of the Hungarian Kingdom by the Tatars” by Master Roger, and “The Great Chronicle” (Chronica Maiora) by Matthew Paris. Results and novelty of the research: Based on the comparative use of Russian, Caucasian, and European sources, the authors come to the conclusion that the image of the “Tatars” presented in Russian written sources combines both the characteristics of the Eastern conquerors common to the Christian cultural and historical narrative, and a number of differences. The general features include the correlation of the “Tatars”, at the initial stages of their military expansion, with the peoples of the “End Times” or the idea of them as a “scourge of God” sent as punishment for the sins of Christians. A specific feature of the image of the “Tatars” contained in Russian chronicles is the almost complete lack of information about their appearance, everyday culture, and military skills.

Research objectives: This work focuses on the origins of Amir Buruldai (also recorded as Burundai). He was an eminent military leader of the Horde during the time of the Mongol conquests and an active participant in the seven-year-long Western campaign, defeating the main forces of the Principality of Vladimir at the Sit’ River. Research on the origin of the generals living at the time of formation of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde is not a simple task. Synchronous and late sources carry information mainly about the relatives of Chinggis Khan and his closest associates. Biographies of many participants of the Western campaign are reconstructed with great difficulty; almost nothing is known about them, or extremely confusing, fragmentary, and contradictory information is found. Amir Buruldai can be included among such figures, left in the shadow of Chinggis Khan, his children, and grandchildren. A famous Mongol commander, Buruldai is distinguishable in the sources during the conquest of Eastern Europe and the campaigns against Hungary and Poland. In the research literature, the figure of Burundai is given some attention. However, he is mentioned occasionally in connection with the fate and lives of Russian princes, and a complete biography or historical portrait was not made. This is largely due to the state of the source material. Its information does not give us a clear picture of one of the more illustrious generals of the time of the Mongol-Tatar conquests. At the same time, a holistic picture of the life and activities of individual military commanders during the Mongol conquests, reconstructed on the basis of written sources, can give us valuable information for generalizations about warfare waged by the Mongol Empire and the ulus of Jochi, its development in a historical perspective, and the impact on the development of weapons and warfare among neighboring countries and peoples. Research materials: The main sources of information about Burundai are epic and chronicle works of Mongolian and Chinese origin, as well as Persian and Russian chronicles. Additional and indirect information is provided by official documentation and archaeological material. Results and novelty of the research: This article concludes that among the persons mentioned in written sources, Ogelen-cherbi can be considered the most plausible figure for Boorchu’s brother. Accordingly, he is to be recognized as the father of Buraldai. The latter, in all probability, was born in about 1200.

This chapter looks at Greek quotes in the chronicles of Kyivan Rus’ and speculates on how they came to take their eventual form. While many quotations have a clear provenance, and often constituted secondary translations from Bulgarian, in some cases, there are subtle differences, or other signs that they may have been taken, at least in part, from unknown intermediary sources. The example is given of the “Philosopher’s Speech” in the Primary Chronicle, where an isolated quote from Amphilochius of Iconium shows that the compiler of the chronicle must have been drawing on more than one source. Other phrases use metaphor in ways that are unlikely to have come naturally to the mind of a native of Rus’, and, while they have a clear Greek precedent, are from texts which, at the time, had largely fallen into obscurity, indicating again the probable use of a bridging source.

The previous restitution of the Carolingian church of Saint-Riquier's dates back to 1912. Proposed by W. Effmann, it was founded on the testimony of two Latin sources : Angilbert's Institutio (IXth century) and Hariulphe's Chronicle (XIth century) enriched with comparisons with the surviving westwerk (late IXth century) of the Corvey Abbey (Westphalia). Nowadays, and given the latest 1988 discoveries, we are able to propose a renewed vision of this important monument, actual «model monastic facility», which served as a prototype for many religious buildings all over the Carlovingian Empire. Relying on archaeological excavations carried out on Saint-Riquier's site since 1959, enlightened by M. Heitz's liturgical study published in 1963, with due mention of unpublished comparisons with many mediaeval buildings displaying similar features, a new reading of W. Effmann's sources leads us to the following restitution : two bulky buildings built along a centered plan (eight- and sixteen- sided concentric polygons), one on the western side (the Saviour's Tower), connected by a system of naves, completed on the eastern side by what definitely looks like a martyrium girded by the corridor of a crypt reworked and widened in the XIth century. This remarkable basilica has the same dimensions as the present day abbey-church built along the same structures. It was bounded on its southern side, as early as the VIIIth century, by a wide rectangular area -which will become the mediaeval cloister- along which the claustral buildings are articulated.

The Political Power Impress on the Urban Landscape : Sauveterre of Bearn in the Middle Ages. Sauveterre is a city of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, born at the XIth century on the Bearn viscouncy North-West border, in the Pyrénées West part. The conservation state of its medieval architecture provided a urban archeological study, on the city scale. The archeological survey and analysis bring out, on one side, a limited urban expansion and modest architectural dispositions, such as the group of constructions of the Pyrénées. On the other side, they bring out development modalities encouraged by the society and viscouncy implications in the urbanism, able to materialize béarnaise prosperity at the edge of this independancy, between the xnth and the XIVth century.

This historical research work tries to interpret the evolution of the monastery of Santa Maria del Burgo from its foundation, at the end of the 11th Century, until the middle of the 16th Century. The diplomatic study and the analysis of the archaeological sources try to contribute certain novelties in the debate on the depopulation of the Extreme Durii during the IXth and Xth Centuries. After the XIth Century, the regular canons of St. Augustine undertook, in this territory, an intense repopulating activity that acted on the old Mozarabic populations while facilitating the arrival of new quotas from the northern peninsula. During the XIIIth and XIVth Centuries, the monastery of Burgohondo came to order the ecclesial life of about fifty villages from Piedrahita and the Corneja valley to Cebreros and the middle Alberche; from the limits of the city of Avila to Tietar river, on the other side of the mountains. In the 16th Century, through the bull of Leon X of 1514, the secularization of the monastery took place. Apostolic attention was limited to the nine parishes of the Council of Burgo and the regular canons of St. Augustine renounced the common life they had led since its foundation.

The memory of the martyred saints Amand, Luce, Alexandre and Audalde is attached to the Benedictine abbey of Caunes-Minervois. The first historical mention concerning these saints is to be found in the cartulary of the abbey and dates 983. A few donations are mentioned by charters in the XIth century. Then documentation is lacking until 1391, at which date abbot Jean de Castelpers places order of a new reliquary to shelter the remains of the four martyred brothers. Did the cult of the Caunes martyrs remain vivacious during the four hundred years or was it to such a point at death’s door it was felt necessary to reactivate it in 1391 ?. The examination of the few documents narrating their legend and of painted fragments inside the abbey church direct the researches on one hand towards the creation of a cult by interpolating texts in the Xth-XIth centuries, on the other hand towards a solemn elevation of the relics in the XIVth century, maybe as part of a competition between nearby abbeys.

The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East

The Ancestors of Inhalational Anesthesia: The Soporific Sponges (XIth–XVIIth Centuries)

Society in present days is heavily using different forms of electronic communication. The amount of transferred data is growing and the need of quick reaction to cyber incidents is needed. The paper is contribution to this effort. There is possibility to save time and sources by concentration only sub group of potential threats caused by specific group of users. For that reason in this paper the possibility of the user clustering of a selected network on the base of their browsing behaviour is analyzed. The main source of information about selected group of users is web access log file where all necessary data are stored. The contribution also presents the concept of pre-processing of data from the selected specific files. As a method of machine learning was chosen a mean shift clustering algorithm which was applied for division of users to the specific collections on the base of their behaviour in the web environment. A presented method has a potential use in different areas of the cyber defence and also in applications where intelligent classification is required.

A partir do estudo de caso da Comarca de Bragança, no Pará, este artigo analisa o processo de organização e preservação documental, pelo qual passa o acervo histórico dessa unidade judiciária estadual. Desde 2017 com a assinatura do convênio de cooperação entre o Tribunal de Justiça do Pará (TJPA) e a Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), atividades de conservação preventiva são realizadas junto ao setor de arquivo do Fórum de Bragança, onde cerca de cem mil registros de natureza cível, criminal e administrativa, datados de meados do século XIX até os dias atuais, encontravam-se acumulados em condições inapropriadas. Com mais de três anos de vigência, o convênio resultou, dentre outras coisas, em um projeto de extensão vinculado a Faculdade de História, do campus de Bragança, que coordena o tratamento da documentação de valor permanente e através do qual a memória institucional e social do Poder Judiciário paraense vem sendo recuperada em função das pesquisas de caráter histórico, produzidas a partir de então, que têm nessa documentação sua principal fonte de informação.

Up to the present day only a few historic studies of current relations between the European Union and Japan have been carried out. Most of them are focused on events that took place during the first decade of the 21st century. Up to now the theme in question has mainly been researched by journalists and political scientists. At the same time, the massive integration processes initiated by Brussels and Tokyo pose and interest to historians involved in studies of international relations. The aim set by the authors of the current article is to study and analyze the development of contemporary relations between Japan and the nations of Western Europe. The authors resorted to the complex systems approach, as it is the best way to describe the multidimensional nature of ties between Europe and Japan. Among the main sources of information used for the research in question are foreign periodicals, bilateral and multilateral agreements between Japan and the EU, statistical reports of the European Commission and the Government of Japan as well as a number of earlier studies carried out by Russian, Japanese and Western scientists. The conclusion made by the authors of the article is that in spite of the trends towards strengthening of national egoism and protectionism, which have been on the rise since the 2009 global financial crisis, Japan and the European Union continue to build up their cooperation based on the principles of neoliberalism thereby proving the viability of this model of international relations.

Medieval Church Barns in DenmarkThe subject of this article is medieval church barns within the area of present-day Denmark. A church barn (or tithe barn) is a building erected near a parish church and used for storing the crops that local peasants paid as tithes or taxes to the church. Constructed as functional buildings for the church, these barns have both a clerical and a secular context. In 1912 M. Mackeprang gave an account of relevant written sources and made a provisional list of barns preserved at that time. In this work the list has been revised to describe the present day situation and it is established that there are 31 church barns preserved today. There are a few additional buildings of which the original function is uncertain that could be added to this list (fig. 1). Since Mackeprang’s article no total account of Danish church barns has been compiled, and relevant information therefore had to be sought from various sources. The most important written sources for medieval and post-medieval times are the letters from the Chancellery (Kancelliets brevbøger) and church laws from the early Protestant period. Although these documents are not medieval, in this article they are used to give a probable picture of the condition of the medieval church barns. Another important source is the notebook that the Funen bishop Jacob Madsen made during his visitation of every parish in his diocese in the late 16th century. The bishop often mentions the condition of church barns and sometime adds some more information. His work is very reliable and gives an idea of the status of the Funen church barns approximately 50 years after the Reformation.All of the preserved barns are situated in the churchyard of the church to which they belong. Some are built at the periphery of the churchyard so that one of the walls forms part of the churchyard wall. Some church barns are free-standing within the churchyard (fig. 2), while a few are built as an extension of the actual church. This is the case of the preserved church barn in Voldum (fig. 3) and also of the now lost barn in Brønshøj. Jacob Madsen’s notes tell us that if the church was situated far from the village the church barn could be placed centrally in the village instead. All of the preserved church barns are made of stone. On Zealand they are mainly built of bricks but on the southern part of the island local limestone is also used to a great extent. (fig. 11). On Funen barns are built with both bricks and granite boulders (fig. 4). The few preserved barns in Jutland have plinths of granite boulders while the walls are built of brick. The fact that church barns are brick-built is surprising because secular barns in medieval Denmark were always wooden constructions. Perhaps many of the lost church barns were timbered or half-timbered buildings. This was certainly the case of some of the Funen barns which Jacob Madsen described. This can also be deduced from a document from the year 1573 in which a special licence was given to tear down all church barns in the Århus diocese that were not brick-built. This suggests that the remaining brick-built church barns may not be representative of the majority of the medieval barns.Judging from the remaining barns and reliable measurements from ruined barns the dimensions of these buildings are typically 14-16 m x 7-9 m. The biggest barn is that in Tranebjerg on the island of Samsø (21.5 m x 9 m) while the barn in Mogenstrup, no longer in existence, was only 8.5 m by 4.23 m. Thus the dimensions of the medieval barns seem to have varied greatly. Some of the existing barns have been reduced (Melby, fig. 10) or expanded (Mesinge, fig. 5) in size. It is difficult to determine what was used for roofing the medieval barns. It is unlikely, however, that a barn with a stepped gable would also have a thatched roof, since such a roof would not fit tight against the gable but would have to overlap the top of it. The decorated gables of some of the barns are described in detail because these decorations can be used to date the barns (figs. 10-12). Caution has to be exercised, however, since these gables have often been restored freely, as for example in Strø (figs. 6 & 7). The church barn in Skårup has also been restored, but the reconstructed form of the gables is based on traces in the brickwork (figs. 8 & 9). In general the decorated gables of church barns seem to adopt local types of decoration that are also used in the churches. An example is the lost church barn in Ejby (fig. 20). It is not known whether church barns have existed in Denmark since the tithe regulations were introduced in the 12th century or if they are solely a late medieval phenomenon. Palle Lauring argues that Finderup Barn, in which King Erik Klipping was killed in 1289, was the village church barn. If this is true this would be the earliest mention of a Danish church barn. In Hjallese, Funen, remains of foundations have been interpreted as a church barn. This building is dated by two coins from the reign of Christoffer II (1320-1326). If this is correct it would be the oldest archaeologically dated church barn in Denmark. All of the preserved church barns are much later. These buildings date from 1450-1550, to judge from the decorated gables. The barn in Øster Egesborg is the only one to have been dendrochronologically dated. The trees used for its rafters were felled in approximately 1485-90. Even though church barns generally seem to be a medieval phenomenon it is apparent from written sources that church barns were also built in the second half of the 16th century and even as late as the beginning of the 17th century. However, in the attempt to make an account of the distribution of church barns in medieval Denmark it is often impossible to differentiate between barns built before 1536 and those built after. All references to church barns that could be found were therefore included for the purposes of the map (fig. 13). The main source of information about lost church barns on Zealand is Danmarks kirker, a series of descriptions of the Danish churches which now covers all of Zealand. Jacob Madsen is the main source for Funen , while information about church barns in Jutland is much more scarce and diffusely spread. The map of Jutland may not at the moment, therefore, give as true a picture of the medieval situation as the maps of Zealand and Funen. It is often claimed that church barns were a phenomenon concentrated in the eastern parts of Denmark (Zealand, Funen and Eastern Jutland) and generally this work supports this assumption. However, there have been church barns even in the northwest part of Jutland. On the other hand only one church barn is mentioned in the sources for the southern part of Jutland. In a church law from 1537 it is said that in every parish peasants should bring their crops to the church barns, but as the above shows there might not have been a church barn in every parish throughout the country. Possible explanations for the relatively few church barns in Jutland will be given later.Church barns also existed in the boroughs (fig. 15). The function of these buildings was to house the crops that came from the town’s fields, which were cultivated by the citizens. Furthermore the churches in the boroughs could function as parish churches for peasants in nearby villages.In theory tithe should be paid on all agricultural products, but in Denmark the crop tithe was by far the most important. In other European countries the tithe was divided into four portions: the vicar’s tithe, the bishop’s tithe, the tithe to keep the church well-maintained and equipped (the so-called fabrica), and finally one fourth of the tithe was given to the poor. In Denmark the tithe was only divided into three portions – leaving nothing to the poor. Even inside the Danish kingdom the practice of tithe varied greatly. A bishop’s tithe was introduced on Zealand, in Scania and in Slesvig in the late 12th century, but in the rest of Jutland and on Funen the bishop was paid a fixed amount of money (the “bishop’s gift”) that would often be much less than a third of the tithe. The dislike of the bishop’s tithe could among other things stem from the fact that this tithe should in theory be transported to the bishop’s town, which could be very far from the village. When the bishop’s tithe was introduced by law on Zealand is it said in the letter of the law that the tithe should only be brought to a place within the parish – probably to ease the acceptance of this new tax. Only in 1443 was the bishop’s tithe introduced in Jutland and on Funen, and it was much disliked. Which of the three parts of the tithe was stored in the church barns? In King Christian III’s church law from 1536 it is mentioned that the tithe should be brought to the church barn and then divided in three. On the other hand it is reasonable to assume that the vicar’s third of the tithe was brought directly to the vicarage, which was situated within the parish. One source indirectly points at this fact. In 1536 it is said that the peasants should be given two barrels of beer on the day they bring the tithe – and it is then added that this beer should not be consumed at the vicarage, as had often happened before. Maybe this is the reason a late 16th century barn beside the vicarage of Nimtofte in Eastern Jutland is called the church barn. So, did the church barns house the bishop’s tithe, the fabrica or both? As a result of the Reformation in 1536 the church’s property was confiscated by the king. The king now became head of the church and the bishop’s tithe was now called the king’s tithe. Apparently in the first years after the Reformation this change was only in name and therefore the practices concerning the king’s tithe in the early Protestant period probably reflect how the bishop’s tithe was handled in the late medieval period. In 1546 it is said in a letter from the Chancellery that the