Abstract
Abstract. Cable bacteria can strongly alter sediment biogeochemistry. Here, we used laboratory incubations to determine the potential impact of their activity on the cycling of iron (Fe), phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S). Microsensor depth profiles of oxygen, sulfide and pH in combination with electric potential profiling and fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) analyses showed a rapid development (<5 d) of cable bacteria, followed by a long period of activity (>200 d). During most of the experiment, the current density correlated linearly with the oxygen demand. Sediment oxygen uptake was attributed to the activity of cable bacteria and the oxidation of reduced products from the anaerobic degradation of organic matter, such as ammonium. Pore water sulfide was low (< 5 µM) throughout the experiment. Sulfate reduction acted as the main source of sulfide for cable bacteria. Pore water Fe2+ reached levels of up to 1.7 mM during the incubations, due to the dissolution of FeS (30 %) and siderite, an Fe carbonate mineral (70 %). Following the upward diffusion of Fe2+, a surface enrichment of Fe oxides formed. Hence, besides FeS, siderite may act as a major source of Fe for Fe oxides in coastal surface sediments where cable bacteria are active. Using µXRF, we show that the enrichments in Fe oxides induced by cable bacteria are located in a thin subsurface layer of 0.3 mm. We show that similar subsurface layers enriched in Fe and P are also observed at field sites where cable bacteria were recently active and little bioturbation occurs. This suggests that such subsurface Fe oxide layers, which are not always visible to the naked eye, could potentially be a marker for recent activity of cable bacteria.
Highlights
Depletion of oxygen (O2) in the bottom waters of coastal areas is increasing worldwide, as a consequence of eutrophication and climate change (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Breitburg et al, 2018; Schmidtko et al, 2017)
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging confirmed that the filaments were cable bacteria (Fig. 1d), as the external surface of the filament was characterised by a parallel pattern of ridges and grooves along its latitudinal axis, which is a typical feature of cable bacteria (Cornelissen et al, 2018; Geerlings et al, 2019)
The strong acidity of the pore water associated with the activity of cable bacteria, which was monitored using microsensor profiling of the electric potential (EP) during the experiment, led to dissolution of FeS and siderite and the formation of Fe and Mn oxides and Ca-P in mineral form near the sediment surface
Summary
Depletion of oxygen (O2) in the bottom waters (i.e. water directly above the seafloor) of coastal areas is increasing worldwide, as a consequence of eutrophication and climate change (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Breitburg et al, 2018; Schmidtko et al, 2017). Progressive eutrophication induces a characteristic response of coastal systems with transient and seasonal hypoxia (O2 < 63 μM) transitioning into permanent anoxia (O2 = 0 μM). In this later stage, free sulfide (H2S) may escape from the sediment and accumulate in the bottom water, a condition referred to as euxinia (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Kemp et al, 2009; Rabalais et al, 2014). The presence of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) oxides in surface sediments may delay this transition towards euxinia by removing H2S and, preventing an efflux of H2S to the overlying water (Kristensen et al, 2003; Kristiansen et al, 2002; Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008)
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