Abstract
This review describes the current research status regarding the implementation of predatory fungi in the biological control approach of bird gastrointestinal (GI) parasitosis. The main GI parasites of Galliformes (e.g., broilers, layers, peacocks, pheasants) and Ratites (e.g., ostriches, emus, rheas) are addressed, as well as their impact on farms, zoos, and private collections. The main characteristics regarding biocontrol with predatory fungi are briefly described, such as their mode of action and efficacy against GI parasites of different animal hosts. The state of the art regarding the use of predatory fungi in birds is reviewed here by describing all associated articles already published in the main databases, techniques, and their main findings. Ovicidal fungi such as Pochonia chlamydosporia, Metarhizium spp. and Acremonium spp., and larvicidal fungi, namely Duddingtonia flagrans, Arthrobotrys spp. and Monacrosporium thaumasium, have shown promising predacious activity against ascarid eggs and nematode larvae from chickens and ostriches, both in vitro and in vivo, also revealing tolerance to the GI passage in chickens and maintenance of predacious capacity. Further studies are needed to understand the fungi–parasite–host gut microbiota interactions and target other avian GI parasitic species, such as nematodes, coccidia, cestodes, and trematodes.
Highlights
Exoclinic—Clínica Veterinária de Aves e Exóticos, Quinta de Santo António, 1495-049 Miraflores, Portugal; Control of Parasites Research Group (COPAR, GI-2120), Department of Animal Pathology, Abstract: This review describes the current research status regarding the implementation of predatory fungi in the biological control approach of bird gastrointestinal (GI) parasitosis
In Galliformes kept on free-range farms, zoos, and public gardens, coccidia infections caused by Eimeria spp. and Isospora spp. can reach prevalence and shedding values up to 80% and 15,000 oocysts per gram of feces (OPG), respectively [6,9–14] and are currently responsible for average losses of approximately
Pochonia chlamydosporia, Verticillium spp., Purpureocillium lilacinum and Trichoderma spp., the main characteristic consists of their ability to predate helminth eggs, and it is the presence of parasite eggs that triggers fungal hyphae migration towards their cuticula, in which mechanic and enzymatic activity are developed [29]
Summary
Domestic and exotic birds are commonly exposed to a wide variety of generalist or host-specific gastrointestinal (GI) parasites, with different life cycles and levels of pathogenicity [1–8]. In Galliformes kept on free-range farms, zoos, and public gardens (e.g., broilers, layers, peacocks, pheasants), coccidia infections caused by Eimeria spp. and Isospora spp. can reach prevalence and shedding values up to 80% and 15,000 oocysts per gram of feces (OPG), respectively [6,9–14] and are currently responsible for average losses of approximately. Larger birds like Ratites (e.g., ostriches, emus and rheas), which are commonly kept in zoos worldwide for ornamental exhibition and occasionally in farms for production purposes, are susceptible to GI parasitic infections, and nematodes belonging to Parasitologia 2022, 2, 37–44. Libyostrongylus douglassii, which is responsible for the rotten stomach disease [6,18–22]. The control of these agents based solely on the administration of antiparasitic compounds (e.g., anticoccidials and anthelminthics) is of limited utility, since they do not act on the environmental forms of the parasites. New complementary strategies are being proposed for integrated GI parasite control in domestic and wild animals kept in captivity, namely the use of predatory fungi as an accurate, innovative, natural, and sustainable tool [27,28]
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