Abstract

Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused the greatest known loss of biodiversity due to an infectious disease. We used Bd infection data from quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays of amphibian skin swabs collected across Chile during 2008–2018 to model Bd occurrence with the aim to determine bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables associated with Bd infection. Also, we used Bd presence/absence records to identify geographical Bd high-risk areas and compare Bd prevalence and infection loads between amphibian families, ecoregions, and host ecology. Data comprised 4155 Bd-specific qPCR assays from 162 locations across a latitudinal gradient of 3700 km (18º to 51ºS). Results showed a significant clustering of Bd associated with urban centres and anthropogenically highly disturbed ecosystems in central-south Chile. Both Bd prevalence and Bd infection loads were higher in aquatic than terrestrial amphibian species. Our model indicated positive associations of Bd prevalence with altitude, temperature, precipitation and human-modified landscapes. Also, we found that macroscale drivers, such as land use change and climate, shape the occurrence of Bd at the landscape level. Our study provides with new evidence that can improve the effectiveness of strategies to mitigate biodiversity loss due to amphibian chytridiomycosis.

Highlights

  • Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused the greatest known loss of biodiversity due to an infectious disease

  • Infection with Bd was detected across a broad geographical range (97 out of 162 sites were infected) with an overall prevalence of 19.1%

  • The prevalence of Bd infection varied throughout the 11 years of the study (GLM, d.f. = 47, P < 0.05), with the odds ratio analysis showing that anurans are more likely to get infected by Bd over time

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Summary

Introduction

Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused the greatest known loss of biodiversity due to an infectious disease. We used Bd infection data from quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays of amphibian skin swabs collected across Chile during. 2008–2018 to model Bd occurrence with the aim to determine bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables associated with Bd infection. Amphibians have declined dramatically in many regions of the ­world[1] with approximely 50% of amphibian species under risk of global e­ xtinction[2,3]. The causes behind these declines are multiple and complex, and they include well-established factors such as habitat loss and invasive species and, more recently, infectious

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