Abstract
Modern dietary habits have created the need for the design and production of functional foods enriched in bioactive compounds for a healthy lifestyle. However, the fate of many of these bioactive compounds in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract has not been thoroughly investigated. Thus, in the present study, the bioaccessibility of omega-3 fatty acids was examined. To that end, different foods and supplements underwent simulated digestion following the INFOGEST protocol. The selected samples were foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids both in free and bound form—i.e., dietary fish oil supplements, heat-treated fish, and eggs enriched with omega-3 fatty acids. The oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) was measured at each stage of the digestion process using peroxide value (PV) and TBARS and by quantifying individual omega-3 fatty acids using a gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The final bioaccessibility values of omega-3 fatty acids were determined. Changes in the quantity of mono-saturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) were recorded as well. The results indicated a profound oxidation of omega-3 fatty acids, giving rise to both primary and secondary oxidation products. Additionally, stomach conditions seemed to exert the most significant effect on the oxidation of PUFAs during digestion, significantly decreasing their bioaccessibility. The oxidation rate of each fatty acid was found to be strongly correlated with its initial concentration. Finally, the oxidation pattern was found to be different for each matrix and emulsified lipids seemed to be better protected than non-emulsified lipids. It is concluded that digestion has a profound negative effect on omega-3 bioaccessibility and therefore there is a need for improved protective mechanisms.
Highlights
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutralOmega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are characterized by the presence of multiple double bonds, where the first one is located three atoms away from the terminal methyl group in their chemical structure [1]
Sardines, and eggs enriched with omega-3 FA were exposed to simulated gastrointestinal conditions (INFOGEST protocol), and the oxidation of omega-3 was followed at each stage by peroxide value (PV), TBARs, and gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector (GC-FID)
The highest increase (615%) was observed for Brand A, which consisted of concentrated fish oil containing a small amount of antioxidant vitamins, which were unable to retard lipid oxidation and protect the omega-3 fatty acids throughout digestion
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutralOmega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are characterized by the presence of multiple double bonds, where the first one is located three atoms away from the terminal methyl group in their chemical structure [1]. Certain omega-3 fatty acids are essential elements of the human diet because they have numerous effects on health based on their function and nutritional value and cannot be synthesized biologically through the human metabolic processes [1,2]. Some well-known omega-3 fatty acids, such as C18:3. The omega-3 fatty acids prevent heart diseases, have an anti-inflammatory role, resist autoimmune diseases, maintain homoeostasis, and support brain function via their essential presence in signal transmission and many more functions [2]. Consumers’ awareness of food-related health issues is rising and leading to a higher consumption of omega-3 fatty acids due to the health benefits attributed to PUFAs. Industries and researchers have focused on tackling problems related to the with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations
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