Abstract
When new predators invade a habitat, either through range extensions or introductions, prey may be at a high risk because they do not recognize the predators as dangerous. The nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) has recently expanded its range in North America. Armadillos forage by searching soil and leaf litter, consuming invertebrates and small vertebrates, including salamanders. We tested whether Ozark zigzag salamanders (Plethodon angusticlavius) from a population coexisting with armadillos for about 30 years exhibit antipredator behavior in the presence of armadillo chemical cues and whether they can discriminate between stimuli from armadillos and a nonpredatory sympatric mammal (white-tailed deer,Odocoileus virginianus). Salamanders appeared to recognize substrate cues from armadillos as a threat because they increased escape behaviors and oxygen consumption. When exposed to airborne cues from armadillos, salamanders also exhibited an antipredator response by spending more time in an inconspicuous posture. Additionally, individually consistent behaviors across treatments for some response variables suggest the potential for a behavioral syndrome in this species.
Highlights
Invasive species have been implicated as a factor in population declines [1] and extinctions [2] of many species
Thermal models, based on environmental criteria such as the annual number of freeze days, lead to the prediction that the armadillo will eventually move into the northeastern United States, including Appalachia [11]
The Ozark zigzag salamander has lived sympatrically with armadillos for a relatively short period of time and, provides a suitable model for understanding the effects, if any, that armadillo expansion may have on armadillo-naıve populations of salamanders
Summary
Invasive species have been implicated as a factor in population declines [1] and extinctions [2] of many species. Whether due to introductions or range expansions, invasive species can present challenges to native fauna in the form of competition [3], predation [1], or introductions of disease or parasites [4]. These problems can be exacerbated by the inability of native species to recognize the threat imposed by invaders so that they fail to perform appropriate evasive or protective behaviors (e.g., [5,6,7]). Prey may fail to respond appropriately to novel predators due to lack of recognition of danger. Naıve prey may recognize cues ( chemical cues) from novel predators if the predators have recently eaten prey that are of the same or similar species (reviewed in [10])
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