Abstract
Background: Hypertension is a significant risk factor of cardiovascular diseases, posing a serious threat to global health. Calcium plays an important role in regulating body homeostasis. The association of calcium with hypertension remains uncertain in the general population.Methods and Results: Cross-sectional data from the 2007–2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed. Adjusted multivariable logistic regression analysis and restricted cubic spline were used to investigate the association of serum calcium with the prevalence of hypertension. A total of 26,778 participants were included. The increase in calcium levels showed a positive association with the prevalence of hypertension in all three models with ORs of 1.347 (1.249–1.454), 1.522 (1.401–1.654), and 1.438 (1.306–1.583). The further subgroup analysis demonstrated a robust trend across all categories by sex, age, race, BMI, and eGFR. The restricted cubic spline plot exhibited an S-curve relationship between calcium and hypertension.Conclusion: Our cross-sectional study demonstrated a positive association between higher serum calcium level and the prevalence of hypertension. Our findings highlighted serum calcium level in hypertensive patients.
Highlights
Hypertension is a common medical condition defined as systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥90 mmHg [1]
After excluding participants who were pregnant (n = 372), age 80 (n = 2168), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 or missing (n = 3,536), and those with other missing values for covariates, a total of 26,778 participants were included for further analysis
When fully adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, education levels, Body mass index (BMI), diabetes history, smoking status, alcohol consumption, sodium intake, triglycerides, total cholesterol levels, albumin, eGFR, and serum phosphorus, increased calcium was significantly associated with the prevalence of hypertension (OR, 1.438; 95%confidence intervals (CIs), 1.306–1.583)
Summary
Hypertension is a common medical condition defined as systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥90 mmHg [1]. The prevalence of hypertension has been consistently increasing in the past decades, especially in low- and middle-income countries, posing a serious threat to global health [2]. Growing epidemiological evidence has confirmed the substantial influence of lifestyle interventions on blood pressure, including physical exercise, dietary patterns, and body weight management beyond genetic endowment [3]. Unlike the normal recognized recommendation of sodium restriction and potassium intake for the dietary prevention of hypertension, previous studies that examined the association between serum calcium and hypertension have shown contradictory results [4,5,6]. Some studies reported calcium to be associated with a higher risk of hypertension, whereas some shown an inverse or null effect. Hypertension is a significant risk factor of cardiovascular diseases, posing a serious threat to global health. The association of calcium with hypertension remains uncertain in the general population
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