Assessment of fluoride exposure and associated health risks from different sources of drinking water to various age groups in Bathinda City, Punjab, India

Abstract

The presence of elevated fluoride levels in Bathinda City, Punjab, India, has been a major health concern for residents. Previous studies have primarily focused on groundwater but have neglected other drinking water sources. The primary aims of this investigation are to analyze fluoride levels in various drinking water sources in Bathinda City, establish their relationship with physicochemical parameters, and appraise the non-carcinogenic health hazards associated with fluoride exposure for various age categories. A total of 296 water samples were collected, including groundwater (GW), surface water (SW), public water supply (PWS), bottled water (BW), private reverse osmosis water (PROW), municipal reverse osmosis water (MROW) (pre-and post-monsoon), and rainwater (RW). Fluoride levels were determined using a photometer (model: HI97739; make: Hanna Instruments) employing the SPADNS colorimetric procedure. The mean fluoride levels in different water sources were as follows: GW (3.77 mg L−1), SW (0.76 mg L−1), PWS (1 mg L−1), BW (1.4 mg L−1), PROW (0.94 mg L−1), MROW (pre-monsoon) (1.62 mg L−1), MROW (post-monsoon) (1.29 mg L−1), and RW (0.63 mg L−1). A significant proportion of GW (78.4%), PWS (14.3%), BW (37.5%), PROW (25%), and MROW (72.1% in pre-monsoon and 27.9% in post-monsoon) samples surpassed the World Health Organization guideline value. The study findings highlight the high fluoride levels in GW, BW, PROW, and MROW, making them hazardous for consumption. Hazard quotient analysis suggests that children face the highest risk of non-carcinogenic health effects from fluoride exposure, followed by teenagers, adults, senior citizens, and infants.