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Abstract
BackgroundCholine is an essential nutrient for humans and is involved in various physiologic functions. Through its metabolite betaine, it is closely connected to the one-carbon metabolism, and the fat-soluble choline form phosphatidylcholine is essential for VLDL synthesis and secretion in the liver connecting choline to the lipid metabolism. Dietary recommendations for choline are not available in the Nordic countries primarily due to data scarcity. ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to investigate the dietary intake of total choline and individual choline forms, dietary sources, and the association of total choline intake with circulating one-carbon metabolites and lipids. MethodsWe included 5746 participants in the Hordaland Health Study, a survey including community-dwelling adults born in 1925–1927 (mean age 72 y, 55% women) and 1950–1951 (mean age 48 y, 57% women). Dietary data were obtained using a 169-item FFQ, and choline content was calculated using the USDA Database for Choline Content of Common Foods, release 2. Metabolites of the one-carbon and lipid metabolism were measured in a nonfasting blood sample obtained at baseline, and the association with total choline intake was assessed using polynomial splines. ResultsThe geometric mean (95% prediction interval) energy-adjusted total choline intake was 260 (170, 389) mg/d, with phosphatidylcholine being the main form (44%). The major food items providing dietary choline were eggs, low-fat milk, potatoes, and leafy vegetables. Dietary total choline was inversely associated with circulating concentrations of total homocysteine, glycine, and serine and positively associated with choline, methionine, cystathionine, cysteine, trimethyllysine, trimethylamine-N-oxide, and dimethylglycine. A weak association was observed between choline intake and serum lipids. ConclusionsPhosphatidylcholine was the most consumed choline form in community-dwelling adults in Norway. Our findings suggest that choline intake is associated with the concentration of most metabolites involved in the one-carbon and lipid metabolism.
Highlights
Since 1998, choline has been recognized as an essential nutrient, as de novo synthesis was proven to be insufficient [1]
Dietary choline was mainly obtained in the form of phosphatidylcholine (44%), free choline (26%), and glycerophosphocholine (22%)
In this study including community-dwelling Norwegian middleaged and elderly adults, we observed that the self-reported intake of dietary choline was below the established adequate intake (AI) for most participants
Summary
Since 1998, choline has been recognized as an essential nutrient, as de novo synthesis was proven to be insufficient [1] It is involved in liver, muscle, and brain functioning and plays a role in diverse processes such as cellular signaling, hepatic lipid metabolism, and methylation-dependent biosynthesis of molecules, including epigenetic regulation and gene expression [2, 3]. It is closely connected to the one-carbon metabolism, and the fat-soluble choline form phosphatidylcholine is essential for VLDL synthesis and secretion in the liver connecting choline to the lipid metabolism. Our findings suggest that choline intake is associated with the concentration of most metabolites involved in the one-carbon and lipid metabolism.
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