Abstract
The chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a food source that is rich in flavonoids such as luteolin and apigenin. Flavonoids are known to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities; however, studies on the flavonoids composition identified and the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in pepper leaves (PL) and fruits (PF) are insufficient. In the present study, we investigated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro, and the flavonoids contents of the PL and PF. Pepper extracts showed radical scavenging activities and ameliorated the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated inflammatory response by decreasing nitric oxide production and interluekin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha levels in RAW 264.7 cells, with more effective activities noted for PL than for PF. Furthermore, PL extracts markedly inhibited the LPS-induced production of reactive oxygen species accumulation. The flavonoid profile and content of pepper were dependent on the part, with PL showing higher total flavonoids than PF. In particular, the content of luteolin glycosides in PL was twice that in PF. Thus, PL may be useful to prevent oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases.
Highlights
The chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Solanaceae family, is a widely consumed vegetable worldwide, including in Asia
We found that the pepper leaves (PL) extracts were more effective in increasing radical scavenging activity and ameliorating inflammatory responses by inhibiting the LPS-induced production of Nitric Oxide (NO), IL-6, and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α in RAW 264.7 cells
In qualitative and quantitative analyses of flavonoids, the composition differed between PL and pepper fruits (PF), in which the PL extracts had higher total flavonoids and, in particular, of luteolin contents than PF
Summary
The chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Solanaceae family, is a widely consumed vegetable worldwide, including in Asia. Pepper is a commonly used pungent spice, including as a valuable ingredient in kimchi, a traditional Korean food. Pepper fruits (PF) are mostly used as vegetable foods or spices, pepper leaves (PL) are consumed as cooked vegetables in Korea. C. annuum has been reported to be an excellent source of antioxidants such as vitamin C and carotenoids [3,4]. The capsaicinoids, which are responsible for the pungency of pepper, are characterized by chemopreventive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and weight-reducing effects [5,6]. Peppers are a good source of phenolic compounds, flavonoids [3,7,8]; the detailed flavonoids composition identified in PL and PF is insufficient
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