Annual cycle of circulations in Lake Biwa, part 1: model validation

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We perform a series of model studies of the physical environment in Lake Biwa. In part 1, provided here, we formulate and validate a numerical model which consists of three-dimensional momentum and continuity equations for a Boussinesq fluid under the hydrostatic approximation in a rotating frame, the advective–diffusive equation for water temperature, and the full nonlinear equation of state for freshwater. Water motion is driven by heat flux and wind forcing which are evaluated from the time series of meteorological parameters observed at weather stations around and on the lake using bulk formulae. This model for the first time accurately simulates the annual and interannual variations found in observed water temperature and velocity fields in the 2004–2006 hindcast experiment. A current system of cyclonic (counterclockwise) and anticyclonic (clockwise) circular gyres appears above the seasonal thermocline during a stratified season, and a bottom flow appears along the eastern slope to sink cold dense water from the shallow eastern region to the deep lake bottom during an unstratified season. Full overturning of the water column during winter causes bottom water temperature to change interannually depending on the severity of winter. These successful results endorse the benefits of the model when investigating the physical environment of the lake over longer timescales.