Animal cultures and a general theory of cultural evolution

Abstract

A review of evidence reveals that animal traditions are phylogenetically widespread, appearing in all major vertebrate classes and in the Insecta. Some, but not all, of these traditions fit a general definition of culture, and the evidence further indicates that the cultural traditions of some avian and mammalian species may constitute complex cultural systems. The general definition of culture employed here is based on a concensus of anthropological thought and on population thinking. Population thinking is then used to develop a general theory of branching-reticulate cultural evolution. This theory identifies the causal mechanisms for change and the resultant patterns of change in human and nonhuman cultures. Cultural evolution is viewed at three levels: microevolution; evolution of cultural institutions; and the evolution of cultural lineages and systems. The parallels with, and differences between, organic and cultural evolution are discussed in detail. The theory of branching-reticulate cultural evolution is then applied to specific instances of change in several avian and mammalian cultures.