An assessment of individual foodprints attributed to diets and food waste in the United States

Food losses and waste (FLW) reduction and mitigating climate impact in food chains are priorities in achieving sustainable development goals. However, many FLW-reducing interventions induce additional greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, for example, from energy, fuel, or packaging. The net effect of such interventions (expressed in GHG emissions per unit of food available for consumption) is not obvious, as is illustrated in a number of case studies. We recommend that in the decision to take on FLW-reducing interventions, the trade-offs on sustainability impacts (such as GHG emissions) are taken into consideration. Since FLW induce demand and extra operations in all stages along a supply chain, adequate representation of cumulative GHG emissions along the production and supply chain, including ‘hidden parts’ of the chain, is required, which is challenging in full LCA studies. As a workaround, the case studies in this paper are based on a generic tool, the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emission (ACE) calculator that includes metrics and data for common food product categories and supply chain typologies. The calculator represents the structure of a generic (fresh food) supply chain and offers data sets for, amongst others, crop GHG emission factors and FLW in different stages of the production and distribution chain. Through scenario calculations with different chain parameters (describing pre and post-intervention scenarios), the net effects of an intervention on GHG emissions and FLW per unit of food sold to the consumer can be compared with little effort. In the case studies, interventions at the production stage as well as in post-harvest operations, are analyzed. Results show that post-harvest activities (especially FLW) contribute substantially to the carbon footprint of supplied food products. The FLW-reducing interventions are considered to induce additional GHG emissions. In most case studies, FLW-reducing interventions lower total GHG associated with a unit of food supplied to a client or consumer. However, in one case study, the extra emissions due to the intervention were higher than the prevented emission from lowering food losses. Consequently, in the latter case, the intervention is not an effective GHG emission reduction intervention.

Reducing food loss and waste (FLW) is prioritized in UN sustainable development goals (SDG) target 12.3 to contribute to “ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”. It is expected to significantly improve global food security and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Identifying “hotspots” from different perspectives of sustainability helps to prioritize the food items for which interventions can lead to the largest reduction of FLW-related impacts. Existing studies in this field have limitations, such as having incomplete geographical and food commodity coverage, using outdated data, and focusing on the mass of FLW instead of its nutrient values. To provide renewed and more informative insights, we conducted a global hotspot analysis concerning FLW with its associated GHG emissions and protein losses using the most recent data (the new FAO Food Balance Sheets updated in 2020). The findings of this research are that there were 1.9 Gt of FLW, 2.5 Gt of associated GHG emissions, and 0.1 Gt of associated protein losses globally in 2017. The results of the FLW amounts, GHG emissions, and protein losses per chain link are given on the scale of the entire world and continental regions. Next to this, food items with relatively high FLW, GHG emissions, and protein losses are highlighted to provide the implications to policymakers for better decision making. For example, fruits and vegetables contribute the most to global FLW volumes, but the product with the highest FLW-associated GHG emissions is bovine meat. For bovine meat, FLW-associated GHG emissions are highest at the consumer stage of North America and Oceania. Oil crops are the major source of protein losses in the global food chain. Another important finding with policy implications is that priorities for FLW reduction vary, dependent on prioritized sustainability criteria (e.g., GHG emissions versus protein losses).

According to FAO (2016), Indonesia is the world's second largest producer of "food waste," trailing only Saudi Arabia. Indonesia's population disposes of food waste at a rate of about 300 kg/capita/year, while Saudi Arabia disposes of food waste at a rate of about 427 kg/capita/year. furthermore, as a G20 member, Indonesia requires a significant policy direction in the prevention and reduction of "food loss and waste" in order to contribute to a sustainable food system. SDG 12.3 targets a 50 percent reduction in food waste per capita at the retail/consumer level by 2030, as well as a reduction in food loss from the production stage to distribution. Therefore, to what extent Indonesia's FLW policy? Bappenas has developed an affirmative FLW policy that guides the national FLW system, among other things, through five major directions: behavior changes; improved support for the food system; strengthened regulation and budget optimization; utilization of food loss and waste (FLW); and development of FLW studies and data collections. According to a Bappenas report, without any intervention or strategy, FLW in Indonesia could reach 344 kg/capita/year by 2045. Meanwhile, according to the strategic scenario, FLW can be reduced and will only reach 166 kg/capita/year in 2045. This study reviews the development and implementation of the Food Loss and Waste (FLW) policy in Indonesia and other G20 member countries in accordance with the mandate of the G20 Presidency in 2022.
 

Food losses refer to edible food mass decrease throughout the human food chain. Food losses occurring at consumption stage are called food waste. Food Losses and Waste (FLW) represent one of the most critical social, economic and ecological challenges facing humanity, besides being also an ethical issue. FAO data show that roughly one-third of food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted. There are no precise and accurate data regarding food waste in Near East and North Africa (NENA) region. The review paper aims at providing insights about the extent of FLW in NENA region with a special focus on Arab countries and Iran. The paper explores linkages between food waste and food security. Moreover, it analyses the economic and environmental implications of FLW. FLW vary depending on food type, country and season. Generally speaking, postharvest losses are significant in this region for most of commodity groups. It is estimated that FLW amount to 34% of food supply in NENA region. FLW undermine the very foundations of food security and amount to major depletion of resources (e.g. water, land, energy) and produce needlessly greenhouse gases. They also represent a wasted investment that reduces farmers’ incomes and increase consumers’ expenses. Therefore, food waste reduction is crucial for improving the sustainability of the food supply chain and achieving food and nutrition security in the region.

Efficient land use represents a global challenge in the context of high levels of food loss (FL) and waste (FLW) and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from global agricultural activities. This study aimed to estimate the land footprint (LF) associated with FL worldwide. It also estimated the GHG emissions from crop residues and their burning, and their relationship with food loss for the main crops worldwide. The study analyzed data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) regarding land use, FL, and global GHG emissions from crop residues. The findings suggest that the average LF associated with FL worldwide is about 69million ha per year, and the main food items responsible for most of the LF associated with FL are maize, wheat, and rice. The annual average emissions derived from burning crop residues of FL are 48.8 kilotons year-1 of CH4 and 1.26 kilotons year-1 of N2 O, and the emission of N2 O derived from crop residues of FL is about 24.1 kilotons year-1 , considering the three crops. Food loss implies high levels of LF and GHG emissions, reinforcing the need for proper public and private initiatives worldwide to reduce FL and waste (FLW). Organizations such as the FAO and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) should incorporate indicators regarding FLW reduction to evaluate and monitor countries' performance. An international agreement also needs to be addressed to engage the world's nations in the reduction of FLW levels. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

From 2022, the European Union Waste Framework Directive (WFD) requires member states to report annual food waste from each food supply chain stage. Comprehensive food losses and waste (FLW) data can be challenging to obtain for the primary production stage, i.e., farming and fishing. However, this information is vital in developing FLW mitigation actions appropriate to each country.This study describes the nature and extent of FLW from primary production in Ireland, using methods approved for WFD reporting. Causes of FLW and FLW as a proportion of total production were determined through interviews with Irish primary production stakeholders and using national FLW data where available. The FLW was presented for each primary production sector - animal husbandry, horticulture, tillage, aquaculture, and fisheries.The total annual FLW from Irish primary production was 189,508 tonnes. The main FLW sources were vegetable production (122,398 tonnes), meat production (41,726 tonnes), and tillage (12,502 tonnes). The activities associated with high FLW did not reflect the quantity of food from those activities, e.g., dairy generated the greatest quantity of animal husbandry produce (89%) but only 7% of animal husbandry FLW. The main causes of FLW in Irish primary production were pests, disease, injuries, and production stress (37%), followed by un-harvestable or un-saleable produce, 24% and 21%, respectively.The majority of FLW described in this study (63%) is considered food loss, meaning mitigation efforts should focus on this rather than food waste. These results also clearly indicate priority areas for mitigation action, e.g., horticulture. This research suggests mitigation actions that improve long-term farm sustainability, e.g., improve soil health, reduce FLW and contribute to food production potential in fisheries and aquaculture.

Food losses and waste (FLW) is considered a critical issue in the ongoing debate on the sustainability of agri-food systems. However, the scholarly literature on FLW is still geographically-biased, with more attention devoted to developed countries, even in Europe. In this context, this article analyses the state of research on FLW in the Western Balkan region (viz. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia). A search performed in October 2021 on the Web of Science database returned 34 documents, and 21 eligible ones were included in the systematic review. The topical analysis of the literature addressed causes of FLW, stages of the food supply chain, extent and magnitude of FLW, FLW and food security, economic and environmental impacts of FLW, and food waste (FW) management strategies. A central finding was the scarcity of data on FW in the Western Balkans. Moreover, the literature focused on FW at the consumer level, while food loss at other stages of the food chain was generally overlooked. There is a lack of comprehensive analyses of the economic and environmental impacts of FLW as well as its implications in terms of food and nutrition security. The quantification of FLW is generally inaccurate and based on estimates and self-reported data. The literature focuses on FW reuse and recycling (e.g., energy, compost) while other management strategies (e.g., reduction/prevention, redistribution) are rarely addressed. However, the results indicated that consumers in the Western Balkans pay attention to the FW issue, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is an encouraging sign that can be exploited in awareness-raising campaigns and education activities. Meanwhile, research on FLW in the Western Balkans is highly needed to fill the identified knowledge gap and provide evidence to policies dealing with the transition to sustainable food systems in the region.

Climate action and food security: Strategies to reduce GHG emissions from food loss and waste in emerging economies

Food loss and waste (FLW) impose major nutritional and environmental costs globally. This comprehensive China-wide study quantifies FLW-driven nutrient depletion and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the entire supply chain. Using national-scale modeling with China-specific data, we found that FLW in 2022 reached 415 million tons (i.e., 21.4% of total production was lost/wasted), generating 281 Mt CO2-eq. Daily per capita FLW at 757 kcal (29.7% of recommended intake lost/wasted), 28.4 g protein (43.7%), and 114 mg vitamin C (14%) dissipated significant nutrients. Using the Wasted Nutrient Days metric, 72–416 days of varying nutrient adult needs were lost, worsening malnutrition burdens. The key node along the supply chain leading to high FLW is postharvest handling and storage (responsible for 49% of FLW mass and emissions), while vegetables/cereals (mass loss quantities) and meat-based foods (high emission intensity) were the most lost/wasted food types. Scenario analysis shows that combining optimized diets and supply chain improvements could reduce FLW by 503 g/capita/day and emissions by 62.2%, closing nutritional gaps and supporting carbon neutrality.

IntroductionFood consumption is important for population as well as planetary health. Globally, fresh water is a scarce resource. For both fresh water use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions a risk of exceeding the planetary boundaries exists. Food production accounts for approximately 90% of the global water footprint and for 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, the Dutch food consumption patterns are evaluated for blue water use and greenhouse gas emission and its association with dietary quality (Dutch Healthy Diet index 2015).Materials and MethodsFood consumption was assessed, in 2012–2016, by two non-consecutive 24 h recalls, in Dutch children and adults aged 1–79 y (n = 4313) (www.wateetnederland.nl). Environmental impact of foods was quantified using life cycle assessment for e.g. indicators (blue) water use and GHG emission. For each participant aged ≥ 18 y (n = 2078), a score was calculated for the Dutch Healthy Diet 2015 index (DHD15) to quantify the quality of diet with respect to health. Statistical analyses were stratified for age and gender.ResultsDaily diets in the Netherlands were associated with 0.14 ± 0.10 m3 blue water use and 5.3 ± 2.4 kg CO2-equivalents GHG emission. Non-alcoholic beverages, nuts and fruits were most important food groups for use of blue water, and meat, dairy and non-alcoholic beverages for GHG emission. DHD15 score was 4.2 ± 1.5 for men and 4.9 ± 1.4 for women. Diets with a higher DHD15 score had a higher blue water use (r = 0.17) and a lower GHG emission (r = -0.35).DiscussionDifferent associations of environmental indicators (blue water use and GHG emission) with health aspects of diets need to be considered when aligning diets for health and sustainability.

Food security has raised crisis alarms all over the world. Especially nowadays, conventional agriculture is threatened by climate change and extreme weather, and the agri-food system is loading the increasing population burden. Food loss and waste (FLW) have gotten more and more attention. Still, the main research focus is on a narrowed and specific stage of the food value chain of specific food types in a particular area, which lacks an overall comprehensive understanding of this topic from a broad view. This review aims to provide a comprehensive description of food loss and waste and provide a useful theoretical background to public decision-makers and individuals to reduce food loss and waste for a better and more sustainable society, economy, and environment. Secondary research and content analysis are used in this review as methodology, following Michael E. Porter’s value chain theory, to analyze and simplify the sustainable path (in light of the cause and magnitude of food security based on the nexus between food security and food loss and waste across the entire food value chain (from the main manifestation of FLW: agricultural production stages, such as cultivation or breeding and storage, post-harvest processing and distribution, and retail and consumption. We also provided the Ishikawa model diagram to better explain the causes of food loss and waste. And other manifestations, such as the COVID-19 and Russia and Ukraine war). To conclude, reducing food loss and waste is crucial for sustainable food security, but the manifestation of FLW differ in different stage of the value chain and different food types. Generally speaking, production sees the most loss, while consumption sees the most waste. Therefore, we suggest both public and private should be aware that producing more food and utilizing food resources properly along different stages of the value chain is equally important.

Impacts and costs of embodied and nutritional energy of food waste in the US food system: Distribution and consumption (Part B)

Food Loss and Food Waste, Causes and Solutions, by MichaelBlakeney. Published by Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, 2019, 225 pp, ISBN: 978‐1‐78897‐538‐4.

One of the challenges of food security programs is reducing food loss and food waste in the supply chain. Food loss and waste (FLW) are not only about quantity loss but also quality loss throughout the milk supply chain. Therefore, a mitigation program is necessary to prevent FLW. This article discusses a systematic literature review on food loss and waste mitigation in the milk supply chain. The review is based on the ROSES (Reporting Standard for Systematics Evidence Synthesis) standard. The study selects articles from two primary databases, Web of Science and Scopus, and three additional databases: Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Dimensions. The review was divided into three themes based on the causes of food loss and waste: animal health, actor performance, and managerial approach. This paper suggests several significant contributions to the body of knowledge and practice. The findings highlight that collaboration among supply chain stakeholders is essential to mitigate FLW. This review gives new insight into FLW phenomena in the milk supply chain and it offers an alternative for the supply chain actors to identify the mitigation strategies.

Japan was one of the first countries to address food loss and waste (FLW) issues by launching a policy initiative focused on FLW management in 2000. Following the introduction of this initiative, the amount of FLW initially decreased, but this has levelled off in recent years. It is estimated that the annual amount of FLW generation in Japan is 25.31 million tonnes, of which the amount of ‘food loss’ (edible but wasted) was six million tonnes in fiscal year 2018. To achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3, Japan has set a national target of halving ‘food loss’ from the total in 2000 by the year 2030. This chapter introduces an overview of policies related to FLW (Food Waste Recycling Act in 2000 and Act on Promotion Food Loss and Waste Reduction in 2019), trends on FLW generation, and good practices being undertaken to reduce FLW in Japan by governments at both the national and local levels as well as by the private sector.