A Worldwide Hotspot Analysis on Food Loss and Waste, Associated Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Protein Losses

Food losses and waste (FLW) reduction and mitigating climate impact in food chains are priorities in achieving sustainable development goals. However, many FLW-reducing interventions induce additional greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, for example, from energy, fuel, or packaging. The net effect of such interventions (expressed in GHG emissions per unit of food available for consumption) is not obvious, as is illustrated in a number of case studies. We recommend that in the decision to take on FLW-reducing interventions, the trade-offs on sustainability impacts (such as GHG emissions) are taken into consideration. Since FLW induce demand and extra operations in all stages along a supply chain, adequate representation of cumulative GHG emissions along the production and supply chain, including ‘hidden parts’ of the chain, is required, which is challenging in full LCA studies. As a workaround, the case studies in this paper are based on a generic tool, the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emission (ACE) calculator that includes metrics and data for common food product categories and supply chain typologies. The calculator represents the structure of a generic (fresh food) supply chain and offers data sets for, amongst others, crop GHG emission factors and FLW in different stages of the production and distribution chain. Through scenario calculations with different chain parameters (describing pre and post-intervention scenarios), the net effects of an intervention on GHG emissions and FLW per unit of food sold to the consumer can be compared with little effort. In the case studies, interventions at the production stage as well as in post-harvest operations, are analyzed. Results show that post-harvest activities (especially FLW) contribute substantially to the carbon footprint of supplied food products. The FLW-reducing interventions are considered to induce additional GHG emissions. In most case studies, FLW-reducing interventions lower total GHG associated with a unit of food supplied to a client or consumer. However, in one case study, the extra emissions due to the intervention were higher than the prevented emission from lowering food losses. Consequently, in the latter case, the intervention is not an effective GHG emission reduction intervention.

Adopting the circular economy approach on food loss and waste: The case of Italian pasta production

The reduction of food loss and waste (FLW) has become a global priority under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Reports from the United Nations and FAO reveal alarming statistics, with 13.3 percent of the world’s food lost post-harvest and 17 percent wasted at the consumer level. FLW is a problem found in both industrialized nations like the EU and emerging countries like Indonesia. While EU nations have committed to reducing per capita food waste by 2030, Indonesia has only begun addressing FLW. This paper explores the awareness and management of FLW in Indonesia, focusing on food recovery and redistribution strategies and their potential impact on rural sustainability development. It addresses FLW management through literature review with the aim of raising awareness to the urgency of FLW management and to support the circular economy in Indonesia. FLW is closely associated with consumer behaviour, and lessons from the EU suggests that supporting local farmers and improving the supply chain can help reduce FLW. The role of food recovery and redistribution in reducing FLW in Indonesia highlights the successful practices, emphasizing the transformation of „ugly food“ and the redistribution of excess edibles to combat FLW. Non-profit organizations in Indonesia have emerged to combat FLW by redistributing edible leftovers to those in need. Additionally, FLW recovery practices extend to agriculture, involving the reprocessing of unharvested agricultural products onto animal feed or organic fertilizers. These initiatives not only reduce waste, but also contribute to food security and poverty alleviation, especially in rural areas. The study concludes that addressing FLW in Indonesia can lead to increased food availability and sustainability. It recommends the development of national policies, programs, and partnerships to promote FLW management and the well-being of Indonesian communities. Further research is needed to identify specific challenges and opportunities for implementing food recovery and redistribution initiatives effectively. By taking concrete steps to reduce FLW, Indonesia can enhance food security and simultaneously align itself with the global sustainability agenda. Keywords: Food loss and waste (FLW), food recovery, redistribution, sustainable rural development JEL: O31, Q53, R11

Efficient land use represents a global challenge in the context of high levels of food loss (FL) and waste (FLW) and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from global agricultural activities. This study aimed to estimate the land footprint (LF) associated with FL worldwide. It also estimated the GHG emissions from crop residues and their burning, and their relationship with food loss for the main crops worldwide. The study analyzed data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) regarding land use, FL, and global GHG emissions from crop residues. The findings suggest that the average LF associated with FL worldwide is about 69million ha per year, and the main food items responsible for most of the LF associated with FL are maize, wheat, and rice. The annual average emissions derived from burning crop residues of FL are 48.8 kilotons year-1 of CH4 and 1.26 kilotons year-1 of N2 O, and the emission of N2 O derived from crop residues of FL is about 24.1 kilotons year-1 , considering the three crops. Food loss implies high levels of LF and GHG emissions, reinforcing the need for proper public and private initiatives worldwide to reduce FL and waste (FLW). Organizations such as the FAO and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) should incorporate indicators regarding FLW reduction to evaluate and monitor countries' performance. An international agreement also needs to be addressed to engage the world's nations in the reduction of FLW levels. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Peru struggles to upgrade its waste management, with landfilling only just overtaking open dumpsters as the main disposal method. Despite the benefits of this transition, including reduced environmental impacts to water and soil, previous studies demonstrated that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions may increase if adequate levels of technological sophistication are not implemented. Considering that 58% of municipal solid waste (MSW) is organic, it seems plausible that a relevant portion of emissions can be linked directly to food loss and waste (FLW) management. This study aims to determine the GHG emissions mitigation potential in FLW compared to the current baseline scenario in 24 Peruvian cities, by modelling alternative technologies to treat organic MSW. Life cycle modelling was performed using the waste-LCA software EASETECH. Five treatment scenarios were modelled: i) open dumping; ii) landfilling with no gas treatment; iii) landfilling with landfill gas treatment; iv) landfilling with energy recovery; and, v) anaerobic digestion. GHG emissions of FLW generation proved to be substantially higher than those for FLW treatment. However, if sophisticated technologies are implemented in FLW treatment, an annual reduction of up to 1.56 Mt CO2eq could be attained. Moreover, despite the health and environmental benefits of a transition to optimized diets, in which, for example, meat consumption is reduced and vegetables are boosted, an important increase in FLW and, therefore, an increase in GHG emissions in the treatment phase is shown. However, if certain technologies, such as energy recovery or anaerobic digestion, were implemented, most carbon losses would be avoided.

Food loss and waste (FLW) impose major nutritional and environmental costs globally. This comprehensive China-wide study quantifies FLW-driven nutrient depletion and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the entire supply chain. Using national-scale modeling with China-specific data, we found that FLW in 2022 reached 415 million tons (i.e., 21.4% of total production was lost/wasted), generating 281 Mt CO2-eq. Daily per capita FLW at 757 kcal (29.7% of recommended intake lost/wasted), 28.4 g protein (43.7%), and 114 mg vitamin C (14%) dissipated significant nutrients. Using the Wasted Nutrient Days metric, 72–416 days of varying nutrient adult needs were lost, worsening malnutrition burdens. The key node along the supply chain leading to high FLW is postharvest handling and storage (responsible for 49% of FLW mass and emissions), while vegetables/cereals (mass loss quantities) and meat-based foods (high emission intensity) were the most lost/wasted food types. Scenario analysis shows that combining optimized diets and supply chain improvements could reduce FLW by 503 g/capita/day and emissions by 62.2%, closing nutritional gaps and supporting carbon neutrality.

Food loss and waste (FLW) is a critical global issue affecting food security, environmental sustainability, and economic efficiency, contributing significantly to resource depletion and greenhouse gas emissions. In Bangladesh, especially in rural markets, substantial losses of perishable produce occur due to inadequate infrastructure, poor handling, and limited awareness. Despite its importance, research on FLW at the retail level and retailers’ environmental perceptions remains limited. This study investigates the socioeconomic status, perceptions, practices, and environmental impacts related to food loss and waste (FLW) among vegetable and fruit retailers in rural markets in Faridpur District, Bangladesh. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative surveys with 196 retail owners and qualitative key informant interviews (KIIs) with market committee members and Department of Agricultural Extension representatives. The results show a predominantly young, male retail owner, with a moderate level of education and experience in retailing perishable goods. Retail owners demonstrated strong awareness of the drivers of FLW, including poor transportation, selling delays, and over-purchasing, but highlighted infrastructure limitations, particularly the lack of cold storage, as key contributors to food waste. The study revealed that 75% of vegetable and 72% of fruit retailers recognized the environmental pollution and public health risks associated with food loss and waste (FLW). However, only 51–52% acknowledged FLW’s contribution to climate change. While most traders understood the immediate environmental and health impacts of vegetable and fruit loss, awareness of broader climate implications was comparatively lower. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to raise climate-related awareness and promote sustainable waste management practices among rural market retailers. Despite a strong willingness to adopt improved waste management practices, gaps in practical implementation, such as waste separation, proper handling, and waste management. These findings emphasize the need for integrated interventions combining education, infrastructure development, and behavior-based strategies to reduce FLW and mitigate its environmental and economic impacts in rural markets.

Food security has raised crisis alarms all over the world. Especially nowadays, conventional agriculture is threatened by climate change and extreme weather, and the agri-food system is loading the increasing population burden. Food loss and waste (FLW) have gotten more and more attention. Still, the main research focus is on a narrowed and specific stage of the food value chain of specific food types in a particular area, which lacks an overall comprehensive understanding of this topic from a broad view. This review aims to provide a comprehensive description of food loss and waste and provide a useful theoretical background to public decision-makers and individuals to reduce food loss and waste for a better and more sustainable society, economy, and environment. Secondary research and content analysis are used in this review as methodology, following Michael E. Porter’s value chain theory, to analyze and simplify the sustainable path (in light of the cause and magnitude of food security based on the nexus between food security and food loss and waste across the entire food value chain (from the main manifestation of FLW: agricultural production stages, such as cultivation or breeding and storage, post-harvest processing and distribution, and retail and consumption. We also provided the Ishikawa model diagram to better explain the causes of food loss and waste. And other manifestations, such as the COVID-19 and Russia and Ukraine war). To conclude, reducing food loss and waste is crucial for sustainable food security, but the manifestation of FLW differ in different stage of the value chain and different food types. Generally speaking, production sees the most loss, while consumption sees the most waste. Therefore, we suggest both public and private should be aware that producing more food and utilizing food resources properly along different stages of the value chain is equally important.

Japan was one of the first countries to address food loss and waste (FLW) issues by launching a policy initiative focused on FLW management in 2000. Following the introduction of this initiative, the amount of FLW initially decreased, but this has levelled off in recent years. It is estimated that the annual amount of FLW generation in Japan is 25.31 million tonnes, of which the amount of ‘food loss’ (edible but wasted) was six million tonnes in fiscal year 2018. To achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3, Japan has set a national target of halving ‘food loss’ from the total in 2000 by the year 2030. This chapter introduces an overview of policies related to FLW (Food Waste Recycling Act in 2000 and Act on Promotion Food Loss and Waste Reduction in 2019), trends on FLW generation, and good practices being undertaken to reduce FLW in Japan by governments at both the national and local levels as well as by the private sector.

This paper assesses the environmental impacts of the average American’s diet and food loss and waste (FLW) habits through an analysis of energy, water, land, and fertilizer requirements (inputs) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (outputs). We synthesized existing datasets to determine the ramifications of the typical American adult’s food habits, as well as the environmental impact associated with shifting diets to meet the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) dietary guideline recommendations. In 2010, FLW accounted for 35% of energy use, 34% of blue water use, 34% of GHG emissions, 31% of land use, and 35% of fertilizer use related to an individual’s food-related resource consumption, i.e. their foodprint. A shift in consumption towards a healthier diet, combined with meeting the USDA and Environmental Protection Agency’s 2030 food loss and waste reduction goal could increase per capita food related energy use 12%, decrease blue water consumption 4%, decrease green water use 23%, decrease GHG emissions from food production 11%, decrease GHG emissions from landfills 20%, decrease land use 32%, and increase fertilizer use 12%.

Agricultural development addresses food loss and waste while reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Pre-harvest loss within the food loss and waste framework: Blurred boundaries and challenges for on-farm food loss and waste assessment

Reducing food loss and waste (FLW) is a key challenge of current food systems, and halving the amount of per capita food waste at the retail and consumer levels is listed among the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs target 12.3), together with the reduction of food losses in the production and processing stages of global food chains. Reliable methods for FLW assessment are needed to support the reporting against the SDG target 12.3 and to design effective interventions against FLW. Early studies on FLW provided an overview of the scale of the problem and had a very important role in spreading awareness about this issue. The number of studies reporting the amount of FLW in different stages of the food chain increased steeply after 2010, by providing evidence of the amount of FLW generated in different settings. Drawing from this scientific evidence, the policy discourse has recently focused on the identification of a range of methods that can support reliable assessments of FLW, across different settings and stages of the food supply chain. This chapter provides an overview of such methods, by highlighting the rationale that pushed their definition and their scope for implementation.

The issue of global food loss and waste (FLW), specifically its environmental dimension, was presented at the Dresden Nexus Conference 2015 under the umbrella “Global Change, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Nexus Approach”. This working paper continues the debate on FLW in the context of sustainable development and explores how FLW reduction can contribute to the achievement of the SDGs, emphasising the broader environmental impacts. Reduction of FLW is explicitly captured under SDG 12, which aims to halve per capita food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses by 2030. However, as this paper suggests, reducing global food losses and waste could potentially have more extensive and cascading effects that would help facilitate progress towards wider environmental sustainability.

One of the challenges of food security programs is reducing food loss and food waste in the supply chain. Food loss and waste (FLW) are not only about quantity loss but also quality loss throughout the milk supply chain. Therefore, a mitigation program is necessary to prevent FLW. This article discusses a systematic literature review on food loss and waste mitigation in the milk supply chain. The review is based on the ROSES (Reporting Standard for Systematics Evidence Synthesis) standard. The study selects articles from two primary databases, Web of Science and Scopus, and three additional databases: Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Dimensions. The review was divided into three themes based on the causes of food loss and waste: animal health, actor performance, and managerial approach. This paper suggests several significant contributions to the body of knowledge and practice. The findings highlight that collaboration among supply chain stakeholders is essential to mitigate FLW. This review gives new insight into FLW phenomena in the milk supply chain and it offers an alternative for the supply chain actors to identify the mitigation strategies.