A theoretical overview and extension of research on sex, gender, and entrepreneurship

IntroductionWomen-owned businesses represent a rapidly growing segment of the U.S. economy. According to the Small Business Administration (2011), the number of women-owned businesses increased by 44% since 1997 which was double the growth in male-owned firms. In 2011, women-owned businesses accounted for 36% of all firms. While business ownership presents its own set of challenges, it may be particularly challenging for women business owners (e.g., Winn, 2004). Minorities comprise an increasing share of new entrepreneurs, increasing from 23.6% in 1996 to 39.8% in 2011 (Fairlie, 2012). Among women business owners, minority women may experience greater challenges than their non-minority counterparts. Smith-Hunter and Boyd (2004) found that minority women became business owners for different reasons than did non-minority women, and that they faced greater challenges in starting and operating their businesses. Drawing from Aj zen's theory of planned behavior (1991), differences in perceptions of challenges may affect the decisions the business owners make and ultimately the direction and success of the business. The purpose of this study is to examine differences in the perceptions of challenges faced by minority and non-minority women business owners.Literature ReviewPrevious research has focused on differences in the business environment for women- and minority-owned businesses, examining differences in challenges associated with major business functions, accessing financial capital, and developing social capital. Considerable research has been performed on the differences between male and female entrepreneurs as well as between minority and non-minority entrepreneurs; however, due to sample size constraints, few studies have been able to examine the joint effects of gender and minority status simultaneously, particularly for minority women business owners.Harris (2011) examined the differences between small business owners' perceptions of problems presented by major business functional areas by gender and ethnicity. He found few differences between the perceived problems of male and female small business owners (women perceived greater problems in the area of strategic goal development), but found many differences between minority and non-minority business owners of both genders combined. Minority small business owners perceived greater problems in the areas of finance, accounting, personnel management, and purchasing.The challenge of woman- and minority-owned businesses in obtaining financial capital is well documented. Pearson, Fawcett, and Cooper (1993) listed the most significant impediments to successful relationships involving minority businesses from the perspectives of both owners of minority business enterprise (MBEs) and corporate purchasing personnel (CPPs). Undercapitalization was perceived as the first issue for both MBEs and CPPs. Lucas (2006) argued that minority women business owners may have difficulty in obtaining access to capital because of a lack of both business experience and industry-specific experience and because their businesses tend to be smaller and newer. Rosa and Hamilton (1994) examined how gender barriers and stereotypes disadvantage women business owners in acquiring business funding. Christopher (1998) estimated that 46.6% of African American, 38.7% of Hispanic, and 33.4% of Asian business owners utilized commercial bank loans as compared to 55.4% for non-minority business owners. Christopher (1998) also found that a threshold debt to equity ratio of 65% with access to commercial capital increased the likelihood of survival of the enterprise, thus highlighting the importance of access to capital. Coleman (2004) examined the relationship between the business owners' gender, race, level of education and their ability to borrow money. She found that white women were no less likely than white men to apply for loans or to avoid applying because of a fear of being turned down. …

On the survival prospects of men's and women's new business ventures

The relationship between women's business performance and sustainable development is a topic of increasing importance and interest. Research has shown that empowering women in business can have positive effects not only on their individual performance but also on the broader sustainable development goals of society. Therefore, recognizing and fostering the relationship between women's business performance and sustainable development is crucial for achieving gender equality and realizing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The objective of this study was to identify the factors affecting Micro and Small-Scale Enterprises in Karat Town of Konso Zone in Southern Ethiopia. Hence, the researchers use a quantitative research approach with an explanatory research design where the effect caused by the independent variables on the dependent variable is observed through regression analysis. Simple random sampling techniques have been used by the researcher in order to select 251 sample sizes of women small business owners. The primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire in the form of a five-point Likert scale. Then, both descriptive and inferential statistics analyses were done through SPSS version 21.0 in order to get reliable research findings. Accordingly, the regression result showed that customer satisfaction, access to finance, marketing skill, information technology, and access to entrepreneurship training have positive and statistically significant effects on women's business performance. Based on the findings of the study, the researcher forwarded possible recommendations for the women's micro and small-scale enterprises operating in Karat town.

PurposeThe study of women business founders provides an opportunity to determine their unique leadership characteristics. Starting a business may be a way for women business owners to be authentic and create more people-centered businesses. Servant leadership’s gender integrative attributes where both agentic and communal behaviors are valued may be more congruent and reflective of the leadership behaviors of women entrepreneurs. Recently, the motivation of compassionate love was theorized to be an antecedent to servant leadership and, it is argued, exists in conjunction with authenticity. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate compassionate love, authenticity and servant leadership and determine whether they exist in the behaviors of founding female business owners.Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative research study used summative content analysis of telephone interviews conducted with 12 women business owners of professional service firms in four US states to determine whether these women’s motivations, traits and behaviors were consistent with the compassionate love servant leadership model and whether authenticity was the cornerstone of servant leadership.FindingsThe analyses found that these women revealed a strong authenticity orientation as they enacted a compassionate love servant leadership style within their businesses. Themes that emerged from the study were agency, calling, humility, trust and respect, self-development, stewardship, authenticity and providing direction. The study revealed support for some of the characteristics associated with compassionate love servant leadership and two characteristics which were unique to this study.Research limitations/implicationsAs a qualitative study of 12 individuals, these findings may not be generalizable beyond the four US states of professional service enterprises of women business founders. Future research should test the full servant leadership model of women business owners on a larger group of business founders and the sub-themes where little support exists.Practical implicationsThe more gender integrative style of compassionate love servant leadership may be beneficial for women owners to employ as business leaders.Originality/valueThis research revealed support for a variation of compassionate love servant leadership model. The resulting servant leadership model herein was a mixture of agentic and communal leadership motivations, traits and behaviors useful to women business founders. Behaviors of authenticity were found to complement compassionate love. These women were able to extend the boundaries of what it means to be a leader and incorporate behaviors associated with both their gender and leadership roles, thus expanding their ability to successfully empower and equip themselves to navigate barriers unique to women leaders.

This study aims to analyze the effect of the needs of achievement and personal characteristics (education, age, experience, training) on business performance. This research is census research, using 63 respondents of women entrepreneurs to Toga farmers in Jumantono District, Karanganyar Regency. Data analysis technique using binary logistic regression analysis. The conclusions from the results of this study indicate that the needs of achievement and personal characteristics of business experience have a significant effect on business performance, while the variables of education, age, and entrepreneurship training have no significant effect on business performance. Based on the results of this study, the odds/probabilities of the performance of women's entrepreneurial business in Toga farmers in Jumantono District, Karanganyar Regency can be predicted by the needs of achievement and business experience. The implication of this finding is that to achieve high business performance, Toga farmers in Jumantono District, Karanganyar Regency need to increase their needs for achievement and business experience.Keywords: needs of achievement, education, age, experience, training, business performance

As managers, business owners, and entrepreneurs, women have played an important role in Poland’s transition to a market economy. This paper uses data from a survey of approximately 1,900 Polish women managers and business owners to make comparisons between the two groups along a variety of demographic, social, and economic dimensions. Significant differences are reported and discussed in the context of recent social, political, cultural, and economic changes in Poland. Our results provide valuable insights into the status of women managers and business owners, and should be of interest to policymakers and practitioners in Poland and all transitioning economies.

PurposeMuslim Indonesian women entrepreneurs (MIWEs) lie at the intersection of religion and gender. Given the growing participation of women in entrepreneurship and economic stability in Indonesia, the purpose of this study is to identify the factors (and their significance) influencing MIWEs’ business performance.Design/methodology/approachA survey of 101 MIWEs was conducted, and results were analyzed via structural modelling equation using SmartPLS 3.FindingsThe findings of this study suggest that, within the macro frame of the moderate version of Islam practiced and women’s economic engagement, women business owners’ skills and religious factors significantly influence their business performance. Factor analysis indicates that the role of the veil, Shariah guidance for business and managing stress through the practice of Salah (prayer) are important for MIWEs. However, this study also indicates that, in addition to religious factors, MIWEs’ own effective and participative leadership style, honesty and fairness reputation in business dealings and a good market image are also significant variables affecting business performance. This is in contrast to past studies, where the role of environmental factors such as access to capital, family and government has been shown to have a stronger influence on Muslim women entrepreneurs’ business performance.Originality/valueBecause of Indonesia’s unique pluralistic national context, along with increasing women’s economic participation, MIWEs emerge as a distinct category of entrepreneurs who integrate religion and their own skills to navigate their business performance.

Business and family livelihood performance of Bangladeshi pond aquaculture entrepreneurs: Do business networks and entrepreneurial orientation matter?

This study aims to investigate the mediating effect of entrepreneurial self-efficacy on the relationship between the business experience and performance of women-owned enterprises in South Africa. A quantitative methodology with random sampling was employed. Qualtrics was used to administer the online questionnaire; a sample size of 258 was attained to test the study hypotheses. This cross-sectional study design followed recommendations from scholars on a minimum of 100 as an adequate sample size for regression analysis. Hierarchical regression and mediation analysis were employed to analyze the primary data collected from women entrepreneurs in South Africa.Using ordinal data, a seven-point Likert scale was adopted to operationalize constructs. Out of all the entrepreneurial self-efficacy antecedents and dimensions that were tested, industry experience emerged as the most influential predictor of business performance (β = 0.496*) when mediated by the innovation dimension of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Although the management dimension of entrepreneurial self-efficacy showed strong predictive power, it did not exhibit significant mediating effects. Consequently, there was only partial mediation of the innovation dimension of entrepreneurial self-efficacy in the relationship between industry experience and business performance. Industry experience and business performance are antecedents and outcomes of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, respectively; they were partially mediated by the innovation dimension of entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

The problem in this study is that there are still various controversies in the results of research regarding the relationship and influence between innovations on performance. In addition, there is also a gap, namely the increasing number of women’s businesses on the one hand and on the other hand, the success of women’s businesses tends to be lower than that of men’s businesses. So this study aims to close the research gap, namely the influence of Innovativeness on business performance by mediating competitive advantage. The sample is 62 women entrepreneurs. Methods of data collection using a questionnaire via google form. The data analysis method uses SEM with the WrapPLS 7.0 program. The results show that Innovation has a significant positive effect on Competitive Advantage, but has no effect on Business Performance. Meanwhile, Competitive Advantage has a significant positive effect on Business Performance and has succeeded in becoming a mediator (full mediation) for Innovation and Business Performance.

During the past decade, the incidence of women starting businesses dramatically accelerated in the US. A national, representative sample of women (and men) business owners was interviewed by telephone to understand better this phenomenon. This analysis focuses on women business owners who left corporate careers to start their own businesses. Respondents' experiences with corporate “glass ceilings” and “glass walls”, such as lack of flexibility and challenge, lack of role models and mentors, lack of access to line positions with concomitant intrapreneurial opportunities, and failure of organizations to credit and reward women's contributions, are examined. Differences among three age cohorts of women business owners, included in the analysis, portend increased difficulty for companies in retaining talented women professionals and managers, especially those with entrepreneurial interests. Recommendations to companies include identifying and eliminating barriers to women's advancement in the corporate culture and work environment, and development of more intrapreneurial opportunities.

Over the last twenty years, academics and economic organizations have demonstrated a growing interest in entrepreneurs, especially in the United States and Canada where the number of women-owned businesses has been rising. Female entrepreneurship is now considered one of the sources of growth, employment, and innovation. However, very little is known about entrepreneurs in France, except for basic national statistics, especially at the start-up stage (INSEE 1998; ANCE [1]). In 1998, France had 1,400,000 firms, of which 30 percent (320,000) were owned and managed by women. Among these 320,000 women-owned firms, 55 percent had no employees, 38 percent had from one to nine employees, and 7 percent had 10 employees or more. Taken as a whole, female-owned firms are smaller than those owned by men. As in all other developed countries, these firms operate mostly in retail trade and services (INSEE 1998). One of the most interesting issues about female entrepreneurship is the way entrepreneurs forge their own paths in the male-dominated sphere of business and finance. Women in business often claim they are discriminated against in both overt and subtle ways. Previous quantitative studies exploring this discrimination have been rather inconclusive, especially about access to financing--one of the main issues pointed to when discrimination is suggested. Thus, the question remains to be answered, as some still insist discrimination occurs. For example, Hisrich (1985) asserts that, While financing is a problem for every entrepreneur, for entrepreneurs the problem is often more acute (p. 73). The aim of this article is to provide further insight into the issue of financing for female-owned businesses in France, considering both sides of the coin: the financial institutions and the entrepreneurs. The analysis is based on a combination of previous studies, a questionnaire, and some interviews wit h French entrepreneurs. Historically in France, the popular expression women hold the purse strings held true as long as only small amounts of money were involved. If there was little money, were in charge of it; if there was a lot of money, providing access to power and prestige, were not permitted to manage it. For example, until 1965, a married woman could not open a credit account without her husband's consent (Veil 1994). Considering such a coercive past, it is interesting to look at the way French entrepreneurs currently manage financing within their firms. Methodology A general survey with 240 items constitutes the core of this study. Two sets of data were used: data on male-owned businesses dating from 1994 and data for female-owned businesses from 1997. [2] The sample was chosen randomly from national statistics provided by INSEE and resulted in responses from 562 male entrepreneurs and 403 female entrepreneurs. The response rates for this mailed questionnaire were thirteen percent and eight percent respectively, which appears low but fairly represents the initial mailing samples. Due to the small size of the typical female-owned firm, the 1997 questionnaire included firms with 1-499 employees (85 percent had only one to nine employees), while the size of the male-owned firms ranged from 10-499 employees. For accurate comparisons with the male group, data on female-run firms of 10-499 employees were collected and analyzed separately. In addition to the surveys, thirty interviews were conducted with entrepreneurs from three geographical areas of France (Brittany, Paris, and Lyon), with businesses in industry, construction, transportation, sales, and retail trade. In terms of the origin of the business, 65 percent of the female entrepreneurs either created or took over an existing business, while the remaining 35 percent had inherited the business from a member of their family. Results Motivations. Table 1 presents the findings on the motivations that drive the respondents in their business. …

PurposeAlthough the extant literature has already recognised the negative impact of homebound responsibilities on women's entrepreneurship during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is yet to know whether and how the family has any other role in women's businesses during this critical period. This research aims to explore the patronising and patriarchal roles of the family regarding women's small businesses in a developing nation during the pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThis feminist study is based on the interviews of women business-owners of a highly patriarchal developing nation, Bangladesh. During the period of the interview, Bangladesh was one of the top ten regions of the world in terms of the identified coronavirus cases.FindingsThe research unveils work-family enrichment by illustrating the help of family members in meeting the challenges of the pandemic period regarding women's certain business activities, such as the innovative production process. Besides, the study reveals the assisting and, in some cases, the non-cooperative approaches of family members concerning additional homebound responsibilities that affect work-family conflict during the COVID-19 pandemic.Originality/valueWhereas the existing literature on women's entrepreneurship regarding the family revolves around work-family conflict due to maternal or caregiving responsibilities during the COVID-19 period, this feminist study substantially contributes to the understanding by revealing how family members help women by getting involved in business activities. It further enriches the prevailing knowledge regarding assisting or hindering activities of family members concerning domestic activities that affect women's businesses during the pandemic.

This paper highlights the specific variables of women entrepreneurship for women in Malaysia and Indonesia. An interdisciplinary literature review result in identification of previous studies suggesting positive relationship between women entrepreneurship practice, ICT adoption and business performance. A conceptual framework is then developed, the concept of six WEP dimension (entrepreneurial traits, entrepreneurial experience, management skill, customer relation, training and education and environment); two ICT adoption dimension (e-commerce and m-commerce); and two BP measures (financial performance and non-financial performance). The conceptual framework linked different constructs from empirical study in the literature to the explanatory variable relative to women entrepreneur in Malaysia and Indonesia. The implication of this study is expected to highlighting the importance of WEP and the role of ICT adoption for BP and clarifies which practices approaches are valuable. In future, a research model will be developed by testing the proposed conceptual framework using structural equation modelling (SEM).

Diana was a heroic woman, a huntress. Women seeking capital are hunters rather than gatherers. They are hunting for capital in a traditionally male dominated arena.