A study of the greenhouse gas emissions from land reclamation activities in Jakarta Indonesia

Abstract

Land reclamation activities have direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Examples of direct impacts include coastal geomorphic alternations, changes in water chemistry and disturbances to the local natural ecology. Land reclamation processes also result in greenhouse gas emissions, from vehicle and machinery fuel use, and through the release of carbon stored in vegetation, soils, and the sediment in mangroves, seagrass, and other estuary ecosystems. Given the global extent of land reclamation activities, the scale of these emissions is of global interest. In this thesis, I derive an estimate of the carbon footprint of a major land reclamation project in Jakarta, Indonesia. The results reveal opportunities for emissions reduction initiatives, and cost savings, and in turn, inform better land reclamation development policy, both in Indonesia and internationally where settings are similar.The thesis structure consists of three-parts. First is the introduction to the work. That is followed by an explanation of land reclamation. This includes a description of the environmental impact of land reclamation and a review of the importance of carbon management and how it has been neglected in previous studies. The second part of the thesis describes how the study was conducted; the methods employed, data requirements, an overview of analysis process, and a discussion of the connections between the research questions. This discussion explains how the questions combine to address the research problem. The third and final part of the thesis presents the results, discussion and conclusions drawn from each of the research questions. It is divided into different chapters for each research question. The conclusion summarises the findings and their significances.The first research question is addressed through a literature review of land reclamation development in Indonesia. That review is presented in Chapter 4. The sources of emission from the land reclamation can be summarised as those from sand mining and construction activities. While construction emissions have been widely investigated, sand mining emissions have been rarely studied. The following chapters of the thesis describe the impacts on these intertwined systems. The second research question investigated the impact of quarry and disposal sites on land reclamation activities at Jakarta Bay. Carbon stocks at the affected areas were measured and mapped. It was found that the mangrove areas had expanded once sand mining had ceased. While current sand mining activities have halted, the areas under immediate threat from major land reclamation plans are adjacent to Jakarta Bay, at the Tangerang City project. The result of my analysis suggest that limiting the dredging depth and utilising various quarry sites can significantly minimise the negative impact on mangroves.The third research question aims to address the impacts on the spillover system. Sand mining utilises various dredging vessels and these vessels emit greenhouse gases. The distance between a quarry and reclamation site can play a significant role in determining the type of vessel utilised for the dredging phase. It takes numerous cycles to extract, transport and remove the required material from the quarry to the reclamation site. It has been found that sailing time adds considerably to emissions and should be an important consideration for mitigation actions. By reducing the sailing speed to 78-80% of the maximum design, emissions can be significantly lowered without compromising project duration. The final research question is addressed through an innovative approach that incorporates emissions into the project planning and development process. Land reclamation projects are increasing despite the associated environmental impacts. Therefore, reducing impacts through the application of a carbon management may prove useful in the development planning and assessment of land reclamation impacts. Based on the carbon amount loss or emitted, I proposed a zonation carbon management to manage in the development. My proposal facilitates the inclusion of green space, low energy, and low emission material in the development of new areas. In summary, this thesis addresses a significant gap in the literature in relation to the environmental impacts of land reclamation from a carbon management perspective. My work shows how land reclamation may affect mangroves and emit greenhouse gases and I present a system that may help to manage carbon emissions. By addressing the total carbon amount lost or emitted, I show how these impacts can be incorporated into more sustainable land reclamation planning.