A One Health approach to investigating the health and prevalence of zoonotic pathogens in snow leopards, sympatric wildlife, domestic animals and humans in the South Gobi Desert in Mongolia

Leptospirosis is a major threat in tropical and subtropical countries as well as temperate countries. The disease is caused by pathogenic Leptospira species and considered to be an emerging or re-emerging disease in many countries of the world. Infection in domestic animals and wildlife can lead to economic loss and pose a potential spread to the communities. In the present study recombinant LigB protein is employed in latex agglutination test, which is a cross reacting lipoprotein able to detect acute infection caused by any pathogenic leptospiral serovars. It was employed for serodiagnosis of leptospirosis. The 46KDa 6X His tagged LigB protein, obtained by IPTG induction of recombinant E. coli M15 cells containing the N-terminal region of LigB gee in P QE30 expression vector, was purified by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography and adsorbed on latex bead surface for performing latex agglutination test against Leptospirosis suspected wildlife field sera. A total of 80 wildlife sera samples were collected, including 27 wild feline sera samples (18 tigers, 8 lions, and 1 jaguar) obtained from Chhatbir zoo, Chandigarh, 42 serasamples ( 8 tigers, 4 lions and 6 leopards, 2 cheethals, 1 black buck, 12 buffaloes and 9 zoo staff) sera and 3 live rodents ) were received from Jodhpur zoo Rajasthan, 8 sera samples (4 tigers, 3 leopards, 1 lion) sera from Van Vihar National park, Bohpal, Madhya Pradesh and 3 sera samples (2 lions,and 1 tiger) received from Biwani Mini zoo, Haryana, India. The result showed that sera were tested positive by rLigB based LAT, which were reconfirmed using microscopic agglutination test (MAT). The results from LAT were in concordance with MAT. In conclusion, rLigB based LAT is a rapid, pen site, reliable diagnostic tool of high sensitivity and specificity, under laboratory and field conditions, for the detection of Leptospirosis .

ABSTRACTBackground: Snow leopards, Panthera uncia, are a threatened apex predator, scattered across the mountains of Central and South Asia. Disease threats to wild snow leopards have not been investigated.Methods and Results: Between 2008 and 2015, twenty snow leopards in the South Gobi desert of Mongolia were captured and immobilised for health screening and radio-collaring. Blood samples and external parasites were collected for pathogen analyses using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), microscopic agglutination test (MAT), and next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques. The animals showed no clinical signs of disease, however, serum antibodies to significant zoonotic pathogens were detected. These pathogens included, Coxiella burnetii, (25% prevalence), Leptospira spp., (20%), and Toxoplasma gondii (20%). Ticks collected from snow leopards contained potentially zoonotic bacteria from the genera Bacillus, Bacteroides, Campylobacter, Coxiella, Rickettsia, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.Conclusions: The zoonotic pathogens identified in this study, in the short-term did not appear to cause illness in the snow leopards, but have caused illness in other wild felids. Therefore, surveillance for pathogens should be implemented to monitor for potential longer- term disease impacts on this snow leopard population.

The Snow Leopard and the Goat. Hussain, S. 2019. University of Washington Press, Seattle, U.S.A. xix+ 217 pp. US$30.00 (paperback). ISBN 978-0-295-74657-9. Resolving pressures on wildlife requires local support, and that generally comes down to economics. In the case of the mountainous regions of Pakistan, trophy hunting of markhor (Capra falconeri) and ibex (Capra ibex), plus compensation of pastoralists for predation on domestic animals by snow leopards (Panthera uncia), are helping to reduce the loss of wildlife. Over the past 20 years, the author of The Snow Leopard and the Goat has been actively involved in an innovative compensation scheme, whereby about half the funds come from the herdsmen themselves as an insurance premium, and the other half from external sources (including, before 2001 tourist income). He has also studied snow leopards, concluding that numbers in Pakistan have been stable at 300–400 over the past 20 years and form perhaps 5% of the world's population. He recognizes that these numbers are uncertain and controversial. Despite 1400 papers and reports on the snow leopard over the past 40 years, the species is exceptionally hard to study. Nevertheless, those 1400 contributions demonstrate intense interest in conserving the snow leopard. With so many organizations involved, conflicts are rife, especially over competition for funds and how they should be used. As part of the collateral, we may be moving to increasing the resentment of pastoralists to conservation organizations, which wish to impose restrictions on land use. This book offers no strong solutions, but traces the history up to where we are now in an engaging and well-written account, straddling anthropology, biology, and sociology. Why do we care so much about conserving the snow leopard? Respect for the snow leopard in Pakistan traces through its religious past, including the locally extinct Bon religion, which sees sentience in high animals aligned with those of humans. British hunters in the 19th and early 20th centuries wanted to hunt snow leopards (even if they mostly lamented their inability to get a shot in at such an elusive species). We would like future generations to be able to see them. But the Global Snow Leopard Forum in October 2013, which has defined the past 8 years of debate, emphasized both the snow leopard and its habitat. The meeting was designated as “an international effort to save the snow leopard and conserve high-mountain ecosystems.” Large predators may aid conservation by being umbrella species, which require large intact habitats to persist (Caro, 2003). A second justification now comes from the demonstrable role of large predators in limiting herbivore populations; there are many examples where predator removal generated trophic cascades and habitat degradation (Estes et al., 2011). The author notes the above points, but this book is more about people and the snow leopard. The artificially high density of domestic animals grazing in the summer months clearly causes much habitat degradation, probably more than any trophic cascade could. I am most familiar with the scene in Himachal Pradesh, India, where the total number of livestock grazed at high elevations in the summer is increasing as lowland villagers’ wealth increases such that they can afford to send more animals out over the summer months (see also Namgail et al., 2007 and Joshi, 2020). The increase is coupled with technological advances, such as coordination through the use of mobile phones, that enable more efficient use of grazing lands. Given that impacts are high, the ultimate solution must surely require a reduction in pastoralism. In Pakistan, Hussain suggests that as people get richer and less interested in the hard life of pastoralism, this livelihood may already be declining. Ironically, he notes that livestock, which provided 70% of the snow leopard's prey in a study he was involved in, help maintain snow leopard populations. Further, trophy hunting may have increased markhor and ibex populations, but it has also contributed to vilification of the snow leopard for the wild animals it consumes. Nothing is ever straightforward.

The pastoralists co-exist with wild predators and livestock depredation by predators causes an immense impact on the livelihood of the herders and instigates a negative attitude towards the conservation of these wild predators. Yak herders in western Bhutan move from place to place for herding on pasture and they face challenges with livestock predation by top predators like snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and dhole (Cuon aplinus). To investigate patterns of livestock depredation by the snow leopard and determine the attitude of herders towards snow leopard conservation, we conducted a household interview with all 56 itinerant yak herders in the west of Bhutan. Each herd was keeping a mean of 84 (± 29) yaks per herd. Yaks were mainly kept for milk and bulls for breeding and bullocks for meat to sustain their family livelihood. Predation of livestock by predators (42.9%) was among the top problems faced by the yak herders. A total of 398 yaks were lost to snow leopards (78.86%) followed by dhole (18.3%), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) (2.7%), and common leopard (Panthera pardus) (0.2%) in the past 5 years (2015–2019). The majority (87.22.8%) of the kills by snow leopards were young yak and most (60.5%) kills were recorded during summer. Snow leopards are considered harmful (73.2%), and herders (71.1%) are not in favour of snow leopard conservation. Herders’ conflict with snow leopards is severe in the current study site, and we recommend social development for conservation programmes like livelihood alternatives for the herders, compensation and insurance schemes, and conservation awareness programmes for the yak herders as an intervention to create harmonic co-existence between the yak herder and the snow leopard.

The present study reveals socio-economic and biological condition of Saif-ul-Malook National Park, District Mansehra, Pakistan. Study was conducted during May to October, 2011. Questionnaire was developed for data collection based on socioeconomic and biological conditions. In socio-economic conditions gender, age, marital status, educational level, monthly income of the local people was discussed while in the second section biological condition include the flora and fauna of the parks and adjacent area. A total of 37 people interviewed, all of them were male in which 2 were >18 which makes 5.405%, 18 were 18-30 (48.64%), 10 were 31-40 (27.02%), 2 were 41-50 (5.405%), 5 were above 50 years (13.51%). 31 were married (86.48%), 5 were unmarried (13.51%), out of these 6 were literate having metric qualification (16.26%), while other were Illiterate 31 (83.78 %). 48.64% of the people occupation was rearing the cattle’s, 45.95% depend on agriculture. Monthly income was categorized into three categories (5000-10,000; 10,000-20,000; 20,000-30,000). 48.64% people have monthly income in between 5000-10,000, 45.94% have monthly between 10,000-20,000 and only 5.405% have monthly income 20,000-30,000. In flora of family Aliaceae, Utriceae Astraceae, Rosaeceae, Batsimaceae, Eqisitaceae, Poaceae, Saxifragaceae, Iridaceae, Pepleonaceae, Miomsaceae, Betulaceae was present while in fauna snow leopard, Himalayan ibex, musk deer, brown bear and Marmot are present. Due to more than 1500 visitors visit to the National Park per day during these days which produced an alarming situation for the wilderness of National Park.

Snow leopards and cadastres: Rare sightings in post-conflict Afghanistan

An increasing proportion of the world's poor is rearing livestock today, and the global livestock population is growing. Livestock predation by large carnivores and their retaliatory killing is becoming an economic and conservation concern. A common recommendation for carnivore conservation and for reducing predation on livestock is to increase wild prey populations based on the assumption that the carnivores will consume this alternative food. Livestock predation, however, could either reduce or intensify with increases in wild prey depending on prey choice and trends in carnivore abundance. We show that the extent of livestock predation by the endangered snow leopard <i>Panthera uncia</i> intensifies with increases in the density of wild ungulate prey, and subsequently stabilizes. We found that snow leopard density, estimated at seven sites, was a positive linear function of the density of wild ungulates—the preferred prey—and showed no discernible relationship with livestock density. We also found that modelled livestock predation increased with livestock density. Our results suggest that snow leopard conservation would benefit from an increase in wild ungulates, but that would intensify the problem of livestock predation for pastoralists. The potential benefits of increased wild prey abundance in reducing livestock predation can be overwhelmed by a resultant increase in snow leopard populations. Snow leopard conservation efforts aimed at facilitating increases in wild prey must be accompanied by greater assistance for better livestock protection and offsetting the economic damage caused by carnivores.

Little is known about pathogens circulating in free-living snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and their implications for both species conservation and local communities in Nepal. The close proximity between snow leopards and domestic animals increases the risk of pathogen spillover and represents a critical knowledge gap that has yet to be explored in Nepal. We conducted a pilot noninvasive health assessment of snow leopards in Nepal by screening for the presence of selected pathogens in snow leopards and livestock inhabiting the same area and having local community members complete a knowledge, attitude, and practice questionnaire focused on the health of domestic species and opinions on snow leopards. We collected two different sets of fecal samples of domestic animals and putative snow leopards in the Mustang region of Nepal in December 2024. Six scat samples were confirmed to be from snow leopards by using a species-specific PCR. We detected Leptospira spp. in a domesticated horse sample and Escherichia coli and several intestinal parasites, including Eimeria spp., in several livestock species. This study represents a step toward understanding potential pathogen spillover risks between snow leopards, domestic animals, and humans.

Habitat overlap and interspecific competition between snow leopards and leopards in the Central Himalayas of Nepal

The snow leopard Panthera uncia coexists with the wolf Canis lupus throughout most of its distribution range. We analysed the food habits of snow leopards and wolves in their sympatric range in the Karakoram mountains of Pakistan. A total of 131 genotyped scats (N = 74, snow leopard; N = 57, Tibetan wolf) were collected during the cold periods (i.e. winter and spring) of 2011 and 2012 in the Hushey valley. Large mammals, i.e. livestock and ibex, accounted for 84.8 and 83.1% of the diet (relative frequency) of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. Domestic prey was the staple of the diet of both snow leopards (66.6%) and wolves (75.1%). Ibex Capra ibex, the only wild ungulate in our study area, contributed 18.2 and 16.9% of relative frequencies in the diets of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. In winter, the snow leopard heavily relied on domestic sheep (43.3%) for food, whereas the wolf preyed mainly on domestic goats (43.4%). Differently from other study areas, both snow leopards and wolves showed no apparent prey preference (Jacobs index: snow leopard min. − 0.098, max. 0.102; Tibetan wolf min. − 0.120, max. 0.03). In human depauperate areas, with livestock and only a few wild prey, should competitive interactions arise, two main scenarios could be expected, with either predator as a winner. In both cases, the best solution could primarily impinge on habitat restoration, so that a balance could be found between these predators, who have already coexisted for thousands of years.

Integrating prey resource into the analysis of snow leopards corridor and conflict risk zone for sustainable conservation

The population of Snow Leopard is declining due to anthropogenic activities and prey scarcity. Snow Leopard’s preferred prey species are Tibetan Argali, Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahr, Himalayan Marmot, Royle’s Pika, rodents, and livestock such as Yak, Horse, Lulu Cow, Goat and Sheep. Due to livestock depredation by Snow Leopards and other carnivores, local people have a negative attitude towards carnivores’ conservation leading to retaliatory killing. This study identified whether Snow Leopards prey on wildlife or livestock based on micro-histological study of Snow Leopard’s scats. Micro-histological analysis of 39 scat samples of Snow Leopard confirmed that Blue Sheep is the major prey species in Kanchanjunga Conservation Area (KCA). The scat analysis also showed that Snow Leopards prey on livestock mainly to Chauri in KCA, however the number and incidences were few. The herders also confirmed the occasional hunting of their livestock depredation by Snow Leopard in KCA. People have positive attitudes towards Snow Leopard conservation because they are less suffering from Snow Leopard in KCA. If wild prey species are abundant in the wild, livestock depredation might be low.

Understanding species' dietary ecology and interspecific interactions is crucial for multi-species conservation planning. In Central Asia and the Himalayas, wolves have recolonized snow leopard habitats, raising considerable concern about resource competition between these apex predators. Using micro-histological analysis of prey species remains (e.g., hair) in their fecal samples, we determined the prey composition, dietary niche breadth, and the extent of diet overlap between these two apex predators in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We analyzed 152 scat samples collected along 89 survey transects from April to June 2021. Our findings reveal a significant overlap in their diets (Pianka's index = 0.93), with snow leopard and wolf scats containing the remains of 11 and 10 prey species, respectively. However, the interspecific difference in prey selection was apparent, with significant deviations between observed and expected prey use indicating non-random prey selection relative to availability: Snow leopards exhibited a higher occurrence of wild prey items in their diet (55.28%), primarily blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (24.83%), whereas wolves relied predominantly on domestic livestock (67.89%), with goats (Capra hircus) accounting for over one-fourth of their diet (29.15%). Yaks (Bos grunniens) comprised a significant portion of the biomass consumed by both predators, with higher for wolves (43.68%) than snow leopards (36.47%). Overall, the narrow dietary niche breadth with high overlap indicates potential resource competition between snow leopards and wolves. However, a comprehensive understanding of resource competition will require further study on other axes of niche partitioning, including habitat and time. Nevertheless, the region's low prey richness means that, with increasing human influence, any reduction in wild prey or increase in livestock could intensify competition between snow leopards and wolves, which could have implications for livestock depredation.

Understanding the dynamics of snow leopard-human conflicts and the perceptions of local people of the threats posed by snow leopards is important for gaining local support for mitigating the effects of the conflicts. This chapter presents an assessment of the knowledge and perception of local people of livestock losses due to snow leopards in the central and north-eastern Himalayas in Nepal. In nine settlements in three protected areas (Annapurna Conservation Area—ACA, Manaslu Conservation Area—MCA and Sagarmatha National Park—SNP) we recorded how the perception of local people of snow leopard depredation has changed over time, and its correlation with livestock losses. We carried out questionnaire-based interviews of 1015 households from 2004 to 2016, which included 26.45–100% of all households in the settlements. Herding of yak/nak (nak is a female yak), sheep/goats and cattle (cows, oxen and horses) were found to be the main sources of livelihood for all households in the villages. Herders reported losses of livestock mainly due to attacks by snow leopard and two other carnivores (wolf and lynx). Most of the (1.5–14.3%) losses were attributed to snow leopard, while the other predators accounted for meagre 0.16–5.3%. Predator-induced loss was substantial for the local families and reached $349 per household per year. However, livestock mortality due to other causes (disease or natural disasters) was higher than that attributed to predators. We also evaluated the effectiveness of existing mitigating programmes, designated community-based local mitigation measures, and assessed the subsequent reduction in the level of conflict. This revealed that the number of conflicts was lower than in 1990, and 50% of the respondents had changed their mind about snow leopard conservation. Surprisingly many respondents (15%) were against the conservation of snow leopards and even considered retaliatory killing of this predator as the best solution. Of the five snow leopard-human conflict mitigation measures, compensation from a community-based livestock insurance scheme and the improving of animal husbandry were the most popular in all the studied regions. Altogether, 15 human-induced threats to the future survival of snow leopards and its wild prey were identified in two protected areas. We conclude that there is still a major threat to the long-term survival of snow leopards and its natural prey in the studied areas. Mitigation measures identified during discussions with local people should be applied to create a win–win situation for both local people and the long-term survival of snow leopards.

Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the striking symbol as well as an indicator of intact eco-regions of high mountains it inhabits. Despite the advancement in new methods, scholars argue that signs are still a reliable indicator for the purpose of habitat use study of snow leopards. The relative abundance of snow leopard and its major prey species such as blue sheep (Pseudois nayar) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the Chhekampar Village Development Committee within the Tsum Valley of the Manaslu Conservation Area was determined by sign survey using Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) and block survey using Vantage Point Method, respectively. We also assessed human snow leopard conflict through household and key informant survey. The encounter rate of snow leopard signs were 3.57/km on an average, indicating low abundance, whereas prey species such as blue sheep and Himalayan tahr had 3.8 and 1.8 animals/km2, respectively. The livestock depredation rate was 1.29% with snow leopard accounting to only 0.32% of the total. Due to the low abundance of snow leopard but sufficient number of large-sized wild prey species, livestock predation by snow leopard was minimum, and therefore, the local people had positive perception towards snow leopard conservation. Though the present situation including the local religious tradition and social norms is supportive in conservation of snow leopard, it may not sustain unless incentive programs are encouraged timely.Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1, Page : 11-20