Abstract
The photogrammetric method is widely used in coastal areas and in submerged environments. Time-lapse images collected with unmanned aerial vehicles are used to reproduce the emerged areas, while images taken by divers are used to reproduce submerged ones. Conversely, 3D models of natural or human-made objects lying at the water level are severely affected by the difference in refractive index between air and seawater. For this reason, the matching of 3D models of emergent and submerged coasts has been very rarely tested and never used in Earth Sciences. The availability of a large number of time-lapse images, collected at the intertidal zone during previous snorkel surveys, encouraged us to test the merging of 3D models of emerged and submerged environments. Considering the rapid and effective nature of the aforementioned program of swim surveys, photogrammetric targets were not used during image acquisition. This forced us to test the matching of the independent models by recognizing prominent landforms along the waterline. Here we present the approach used to test the method, the instrumentation used for the field tests, and the setting of cameras fixed to a specially built aluminum support console and discuss both its advantages and its limits compared to UAVs. 3D models of sea cliffs were generated by applying structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry. Horizontal time-lapse images, collected with action cameras while swimming parallel to the coastline at nearly constant velocity, were used for the tests. Subsequently, prominent coastal landforms were used to couple the independent models obtained from the emergent and submerged cliffs. The method was pilot tested in two coastal sites in the north-eastern Adriatic (part of the Mediterranean basin). The first site was a 25 m sea wall of sandstone set within a small harbor, while the second site was a 150 m route below plunging limestone cliffs. The data show that inexpensive action cameras provide a sufficient resolution to support and integrate geomorphological field surveys along rocky coastlines.
Highlights
Rocky coasts are the complex outcome of the work of marine and subaerial processes that result in a variety of landforms [1], in particular in the intertidal zone
The approach discussed here suggests that the intertidal and nearshore zones can be successfully described by 3D models obtained using time-lapse images, following precise procedures and under good weather and sea conditions
Independent models of the emergent and submerged part can be generated using common SfM software and merged using prominent landforms located on sea cliffs along the surveyed route
Summary
Rocky coasts are the complex outcome of the work of marine and subaerial processes that result in a variety of landforms [1], in particular in the intertidal zone This is the area of the coast that is included within the intertidal range or is underwater at high tide and above water level at low tide. Most of the studies on rocky coasts are usually carried out on selected sites, while only short sections of coast were studied using approaches of continuous swimming surveying, such as those included within the Geoswim program [6,7,8,9] This programme was designed to collect observational and instrumental data, such as time-lapse images of long sectors of rocky coasts in sheltered basins, such as that of the Mediterranean, in particular within the intertidal and nearshore zones [5]. FiFgiugruere11. . ((AA)) TThheestsutduidediedsitseisteasreahrieghhliigghhtleigdhwteidth wwihthitewcihrcitlees;ci(rBc)lessit;e (1B, )Lasiztzear1e,ttLoahzazrabroertt(oTrhieasrteb,or (TIrtiaelsyt)e;,(ICta) lsyit)e; (2C, P) rseimtea2n,tPurraem(Paunlatu, Craro(aPtuial)a., Croatia)
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