A bestiary of chaos and biodiversity.

Patterns of biological diversity have been shaped by cultural practices in the past, while in turn, cultures and languages have evolved in close interaction with local species and ecosystems. However, in the Anthropocene, human activities are putting increasingly diverse pressures on ecosystems and cultures, resulting in accelerating threat levels on both. Understanding where biological and cultural diversity is threatened globally, and how far current and historical anthropogenic drivers such as colonialism shape their distribution is crucial for pinpointing hotspots and prioritizing efforts to counter these threats. We use global data on biological diversity (using amphibians, birds, mammals and reptile diversity as a proxy) and linguistic diversity (using as a proxy for cultural diversity) to estimate their current threat levels using the Red List Index framework. Using this data, we identify hotspots and coldspots of threat to both biological and linguistic diversity as well as a combined threat (here termed biocultural diversity threat). In a second step, we identify global drivers of biological, linguistic and biocultural diversity threat using beta‐regression models. We find that the spatial patterns of the erosion of biological diversity and linguistic diversity are only weakly congruent on a global scale and that they are driven by differential sets of mechanisms. These include the level of urbanization in the case of linguistic diversity threat and roughness, per capita GDP and the proportion of intensive agriculture for biological diversity. The only common driver of biocultural, linguistic and biological diversity threat was the increasing occupation time of European colonial powers. Hence, our results show that the European colonial expansion has left long‐lasting imprints on both biological and cultural diversity. This highlights substantial time‐lags of human past actions and can be readily translated to today where the globe is more connected than ever, illustrating the importance of understanding and alleviating contemporary anthropogenic pressures. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

As the world grows less biologically diverse, it is becoming less linguistically and culturally diverse as well. Biologists estimate annual loss of species at 1,000 times or more greater than historic rates, and linguists predict that 50-90% of the world's languages will disappear by the end of this century. Prior studies indicate similarities in the geographic arrangement of biological and linguistic diversity, although conclusions have often been constrained by use of data with limited spatial precision. Here we use greatly improved datasets to explore the co-occurrence of linguistic and biological diversity in regions containing many of the Earth's remaining species: biodiversity hotspots and high biodiversity wilderness areas. Results indicate that these regions often contain considerable linguistic diversity, accounting for 70% of all languages on Earth. Moreover, the languages involved are frequently unique (endemic) to particular regions, with many facing extinction. Likely reasons for co-occurrence of linguistic and biological diversity are complex and appear to vary among localities, although strong geographic concordance between biological and linguistic diversity in many areas argues for some form of functional connection. Languages in high biodiversity regions also often co-occur with one or more specific conservation priorities, here defined as endangered species and protected areas, marking particular localities important for maintaining both forms of diversity. The results reported in this article provide a starting point for focused research exploring the relationship between biological and linguistic-cultural diversity, and for developing integrated strategies designed to conserve species and languages in regions rich in both.

There is an emerging recognition that the diversity of life comprises both biological and cultural diversity. In the past, however, it has been common to make divisions between nature and culture, arising partly out of a desire to control nature. The range of interconnections between biological and cultural diversity are reflected in the growing variety of environmental sub-disciplines that have emerged. In this article, we present ideas from a number of these sub-disciplines. We investigate four bridges linking both types of diversity (beliefs and worldviews, livelihoods and practices, knowledge bases and languages, and norms and institutions), seek to determine the common drivers of loss that exist, and suggest a novel and integrative path forwards. We recommend that future policy responses should target both biological and cultural diversity in a combined approach to conservation. The degree to which biological diversity is linked to cultural diversity is only beginning to be understood. But it is precisely as our knowledge is advancing that these complex systems are under threat. While conserving nature alongside human cultures presents unique challenges, we suggest that any hope for saving biological diversity is predicated on a concomitant effort to appreciate and protect cultural diversity.

The use of national sample surveys for nutritional surveillance: Lessons from Malawi's national sample survey of agriculture

Intensified relations between biodiversity conservation organizations and privatesector actors are analyzed through a historical perspective that positions biodiversity conservation as an organized political project. Within this view the organizational dimensions of conservation exist as coordinated agreement and action among a variety of actors that take shape within radically asymmetrical power relations. This paper traces the privileged position of “business” in aligning concepts of sustainable development and ecological modernization within the emerging institutional context of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Global Environment Facility in ways that help to secure continued access to “nature as capital”, and create the institutional conditions to shape the work of conservation organizations. The contemporary emergence of business as a major actor in shaping contemporary biodiversity conservation is explained in part by the organizational characteristics of modernist conservation that subordinates it to larger societal and political projects such as neoliberal capitalism.

The International Conference on Biological and Cultural Diversity held in Montreal on June 2010, produced the Declaration on Biocultural Diversity and the UNESCO-SCBD Joint Programme on the linkages between cultural and biological diversity. The first meeting for the implementation of the Joint Programme was held in Florence (Italy) in April 2014. The scientific and policy dimensions of the linkages between cultural and biological diversity are of utmost importance in Europe where policies are devoted to the conservation of biodiversity and cultural heritage, but rarely focused on the result of interactions between nature and culture expressed by the rural landscape. The Florence Conference gathered scientists from different disciplines considering biocultural diversity as a good example of a topic requiring a transdisciplinary approach not always supported by university and research. This not only for an effective understanding of the biodiversity associated with landscapes shaped by the man, but also for the further development of the Joint Programme in terms of research and political implementation. The meeting was organized into a scientific part and a workshop for the drafting of a declaration on biocultural diversity. The declaration states that the European rural landscape (about 80 % of the European Union territory) is predominantly a biocultural multifunctional landscape, while the current state of biological and cultural diversity in Europe results from the combination of historical and ongoing environmental and land-use processes and cultural heritage. This book shows the existence and the importance of biocultural diversity associated to European landscape. This heritage should be studied, preserved and valorized by public policies.

There is growing evidence for a discontinuity between genomic and ecological divergence in several groups of bacteria. This evidence is difficult to reconcile with the traditional concept that ecologically divergent species maintain a cohesive gene pool isolated from other gene pools by barriers to homologous recombination (HR). There have been several innovative models of bacterial divergence that permit such discontinuity; we refer to these, collectively, as "mosaic genome concepts" (MGCs). These concepts remain a point of contention. Here, we undertake an investigation among ecologically divergent lineages of genus Listeria, and report our assessment of both niche-specific selection pressure and HR in their core genome. We find evidence of a mosaic Listeria core genome. Some core genes appear to have been free to recombine across ecologically divergent lineages or across named species. In contrast, other core genes have histories consistent with the expected organism relationships and have evolved under niche-specific selective pressures. The products of some of those genes can even be linked to metabolic phenotypes with ecological significance. This finding indicates a potentially strong connection between ecological divergence and core-genome evolution, even among lineages that also experience frequent recombination. Based on these findings, we propose an expanded role for natural selection in core-genome evolution under the MGC.

Species diversification often results from divergent evolution of ecological or social signaling traits. Theoretically, a combination of the two may promote speciation, however, empirical examples studying how social signal and ecological divergence might be involved in diversification are rare in general and typically do not consider range overlap as a contributing factor. We show that ecologically distinct lineages within the Australian sand dragon species complex (including Ctenophorus maculatus, Ctenophorus fordi, and Ctenophorus femoralis) have diversified recently, diverging in ecologically relevant and social signaling phenotypic traits as arid habitats expanded and differentiated. Diversification has resulted in repeated and independent invasion of distinct habitat types, driving convergent evolution of similar phenotypes. Our results suggest that parapatry facilitates diversification in visual signals through reinforcement as a hybridization-avoidance mechanism. We show that particularly striking variation in visual social signaling traits is better explained by the extent of lineage parapatry relative to ecological or phylogenetic divergence, suggesting that these traits reinforce divergence among lineages initiated by ecologically adaptive evolution. This study provides a rare empirical example of a repeated, intricate relationship between ecological and social signal evolution during diversification driven by ecological divergence and the evolution of new habitats, thereby supporting emergent theories regarding the importance of both ecological and social trait evolution throughout speciation.

With the convention on biological diversity (CBD) office in UNEP acting as global focal point for biodiversity, and UNESCO acting as global focal point for cultural diversity, the two institutions launched in 2010 the Joint Programme on the Links between Biological and Cultural Diversity (JP-BiCuD) to strengthen the linkages between biological and cultural diversity initiatives, and to enhance the synergies between interlinked provisions of conventions and programmes dealing with biological and cultural diversity at relevant scales. The first meeting for the implementation of the Joint Programme was held in Florence (Italy) in April 2014 and produced a declaration to promote the Joint Program in the European Continent. The scientific committee received 165 paper proposals. The selection operated by the Steering Committee accepted 63 papers considered highly relevant for the topic of the conference and also 11 posters, from 25 countries. The expert meeting for the drafting of the final declaration was attended by 42 experts from 14 countries and about 33 organizations, including FAO, ICOMOS, IUCN, and IUFRO among others. The Florence Declaration (UNESCO and SCBD 2014) was drafted taking into account the results of the conference works, and has not only produced political indications for the implementation on the Joint Programme, but also indicated some of the most important issues concerning research activities for the promotion of the concept of biocultural diversity:

Karim-Aly S. Kassam: Biocultural Diversity and Indigenous Ways of Knowing: Human Ecology in the Arctic

Biological diversity

SHORT COMMUNICATION INCORPORATING AND DELIVERING BIODIVERSITY IN A COUNTRYSIDE AGENDA: THE CCW EXPERIENCE IN WALES Joanna M. Robertson Joanna M. Robertson (e-mail: j.robertson@ ccw.gov.uk), Biodiversity ActionCoordinator, Countryside Councilfor Wales,Maes y Ffynnon, Penrhosgarnedd, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales LL57 2DW. This short communication draws on the experience in Wales of protecting biodiversity within a broad countryside agenda and discusses ways of meeting the challenges that the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) presents. It is intended to stimulate debate about how to ensure that the Convention really does its job. The British government signed the Con vention on 12 June 1992. The presence of non-governmental organisations characterised the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio, and they have played a large role in taking the biodiversity agenda forward in theUnited Kingdom since then. We now have a UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UKBAP) (Department of the Environment 1994), which has the endorsement and strong support of government. It contains broad objectives (for which responsibilities are assigned) is targeted and has built-in accountability. One novel aspect is the identification of priority habitats (45) and species (391) and the preparation of action plans for their conservation; a consistent approach to these plans is taken, establishing status, threats, what is being and needs to be done and by whom. The UKBAP also calls for the production of local biodiversity action plans, for improvement in information sharing and public involvement. This is a challenging agenda, but there are gaps between what the Convention requires and what UKBAP can achieve. A report to the British government in 2001 made it clear that a strategy was still needed to implement the full Convention (UK Bio diversity Group 2001). The preparation of dozens of habitat and species action plans and the holding of frequent meetings show that the biodiversity protection process, representing a new, inclusive way of working, iswell underway. Against a background of continued wildlife losses, we also need to demonstrate that it is delivering positive gains for wildlife. Our experience in Wales has demonstrated the importance of linking bio diversity with the broader economiic and social issues of' sustainable development, of which it is a key measure. This helps to bring in people across the spe(trum-the link between people and nature needs to be re-established. We need to work very hard to interpret the UKBAP for everyday lives. This is beginning to be done, for example by selecting farmland birds as ameasure of 'quality of life'. However, biodiversity inWales is still a fairly penrpheral issue, with GDP, jobs and the farming industry higher up the political agenda. The voluntary sector is weak, and many local authorities are ecologically inexperienced. The National Assembly for Wales's Sustainable Development Scheme, Learning to live differently (National Assembly for Wales 2000), gives new hope. An important element of the picture inWales is devolution. Wales now has its own Assembly, and it is logical that responsibility for biodiversity should be devolved. The Assembly has established a Wales Biodiversity Group. The Countryside Council for Wales (CCW), as the Assembly's countryside agency, has been expected to make most of the running to implement the UKBAP. The hope is that biodiversity and sustainable development will introduce a new way of thinking about nature and natural resources across all sectors. The opportunities are there. CCW is pressing forward with action to deliver some of the UKBAP objectives and targets. It is combining with other agencies to produce regular 'state of the environment' reports. CCW also helps to manage the first all-Wales, whole-farm agri-environment scheme, called Tir Gofal. A CCW director has been appointed to the National Biodiver sity Network Trust to tackle the data problem-everyone holds bits of information, but no one can access the full picture. CCW has taken over the Secretariat of the Wales Biodiversity Group. We are also supporting the preparation of local biodiversity action plans, which aim to translate national targets into reality at local level and to raise local awareness and resources for action. These plans offer the opportunity to BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT: PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL IRISHACADEMY, VOL. 102B, No. 3, 193-194 (2002). C ROYAL IRISHACADEMY 193 BIOLOGY...

Current biodiversity patterns are a temporary state in a continuum of ecological and evolutionary changes. Conservation policies must incorporate this dynamic to ensure the long-term conservation of biodiversity which is particularly challenging in a context of extreme urbanization. An original approach, rarely used for plant conservation, is to define conservation units to set conservation priorities within species by combining ecological and evolutionary divergences. In the Maritime Alps (southern France), the ecological and evolutionary divergences between the populations of Acis nicaeensis has allowed us the determination of conservation units of this endemic plant threatened by severe urbanization and land-use changes. Phylogeographical data (cpDNA haplotype) were considered as a proxy for evolutionary legacy, and ecological data (multivariate analysis of habitat) were used as a proxy for ecological distinctiveness. Our goal was to explore the potential of this approach to assess vulnerability and set conservation priorities for narrow endemic species in the context of conflict between biodiversity and human activities. The results highlight five different conservation units within A. nicaeensis distribution. Genetic and ecological divergences are present at fine-scale. This pattern is highly endangered by urbanisation. This study highlights the vulnerability of conservation units near the coast whose originality and restricted distribution call for rapid conservation management to avoid the loss of species evolutionary and ecological distinctiveness.

A key question in speciation research is how ecological and sexual divergence arise and interact. We tested the hypothesis that mate choice causes local adaptation and ecological divergence using the rationale that the performance~signal trait relationship should parallel the attractiveness~signal trait relationship. We used female fecundity as a measure of ecological performance. We used a species in the Enchenopa binotata treehopper complex, wherein speciation involves adaptation to novel environments and divergence in sexual communication. We used a full‐sibling, split‐family rearing design to estimate genetic correlations (r G) between fecundity and signal traits, and compared those relationships against population‐level mate preferences for the signal traits. Animal model estimates for r G between female fecundity and male signal traits overlapped zero—rejecting the hypothesis—but could reflect sample size limitations. The magnitude of r G correlated with the strength of the mate preferences for the corresponding signal traits, especially for signal frequency, which has the strongest mate preference and the most divergence in the complex. However, signal frequencies favored by the population‐level mate preference are not associated with high fecundity. Therefore, mate preferences do not appear to have been selected to favor high‐performance genotypes. Our findings suggest that ecological and sexual divergence may arise separately, but reinforce each other, during speciation.

Chapter 8 - Management of Biological and Functional Diversity in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Within Cropping Systems