近代中國民族主義救亡運動的四重奏：保國、保種、保教與國粹保存運動的齊鳴(1842~1912)

Abstract

This paper focuses on examining the efforts made by modern Chinese nationalists to recover China's sovereignty, to struggle for national survival, and to restore Chinese culture. The paper also discusses the issues of national and cultural identity, which has been a controversial debate among intellectuals. In essence, the nationalistic movements for saving China was presented in three approaches: 1. The political nationalist movement focused on anti-imperialism. The nationalists included officials, merchants, and intellectuals aimed at recovering the independence of China's sovereign. 2. In order to make China wealthy and powerful, for competing with the Western Powers, the reformers were devoted to modernizing the educational system by studying western technology, while preserving the traditions of Confucianism at the same time. They emphasized that Confucian ethics are the basis of national identity. They also stressed that all Chinese peoples must be consolidated into one group as the means for expelling imperialistic powers. 3. The revolutionary nationalists engaged in anti-Manchu revolution in order to build a Republic nation-state. The ultimate end of revolution was to recover the freedom and independence of China. The revolutionary Sinologists were devoted to preserving both national heritage and national identity. They emphasized that the common language and ancestor are the basis of national identity. Nonetheless, they also challenged the authority of Confucianism. Finally, the effect of nationalism must be carefully valued. In the case of China, the ideology of nationalism can become the dynamics of unifying national consciousness. In spite of this, ethnicity nationalism also became the main destabilized factor in modern China.