ВЛИЯНИЕ ЭЛЕКТРОМОБИЛЕЙ НА ЭКОЛОГИЮ

Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of electric versus combustion vehicles from 2018 to 2030 in the US

Flying Cars for Green Transportation

This paper reviews the extent to which electric cars can effectively address global climate change and fossil fuel depletion. Moreover, the paper proves that comparing electric vehicles and vehicles with an internal combustion engine is much more complicated than generally accepted. Uncertainties arise both when using primary energy and when calculating greenhouse gas emissions. In general, it must be concluded that the benefits of using electric vehicles for energy and greenhouse gases are less than usually expected. Keywords: carbon emissions, electric cars, energy efficiency, energy storage, spillover effects

Parametric analysis of technology and policy tradeoffs for conventional and electric light-duty vehicles

Status of electric vehicles in South Africa and their carbon mitigation potential

Can Electric Vehicles Deliver Energy and Carbon Reductions?

This report presents a system dynamics based model of the supply-demand interactions between the USlight-duty vehicle (LDV) fleet, its fuels, and the corresponding primary energy sources through the year2050. An important capability of our model is the ability to conduct parametric analyses. Others have reliedupon scenario-based analysis, where one discrete set of values is assigned to the input variables and used togenerate one possible realization of the future. While these scenarios can be illustrative of dominant trendsand tradeoffs under certain circumstances, changes in input values or assumptions can have a significantimpact on results, especially when output metrics are associated with projections far into the future. Thistype of uncertainty can be addressed by using a parametric study to examine a range of values for the inputvariables, offering a richer source of data to an analyst.The parametric analysis featured here focuses on a trade space exploration, with emphasis on factors thatinfluence the adoption rates of electric vehicles (EVs), the reduction of GHG emissions, and the reduction ofpetroleum consumption within the US LDV fleet. The underlying model emphasizes competition between13 different types of powertrains, including conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs), conventional hybrids(HEVs), plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles(BEVs).We find that many factors contribute to the adoption rates of EVs. These include the pace of technologicaldevelopment for the electric powertrain, battery performance, as well as the efficiency improvements inconventional vehicles. Policy initiatives can also have a dramatic impact on the degree of EV adoption. Theconsumer effective payback period, in particular, can significantly increase the market penetration rates ifextended towards the vehicle lifetime.Widespread EV adoption can have noticeable impact on petroleum consumption and greenhouse gas(GHG) emission by the LDV fleet. However, EVs alone cannot drive compliance with the most aggressiveGHG emission reduction targets, even as the current electricity source mix shifts away from coal and towardsnatural gas. Since ICEs will comprise the majority of the LDV fleet for up to forty years, conventional vehicleefficiency improvements have the greatest potential for reductions in LDV GHG emissions over this time.These findings seem robust even if global oil prices rise to two to three times current projections. Thus,investment in improving the internal combustion engine might be the cheapest, lowest risk avenue towardsmeeting ambitious GHG emission and petroleum consumption reduction targets out to 2050.3 AcknowledgmentThe authors would like to thank Dr. Andrew Lutz, Dr. Benjamin Wu, Prof. Joan Ogden and Dr. ChristopherYang for their suggestions over the course of this project. This work was funded by the Laboratory DirectedResearch and Development program at Sandia National Laboratories.4

Assessments on emergy and greenhouse gas emissions of internal combustion engine automobiles and electric automobiles in the USA

The goal of this study is to add to the understanding of the overall emissions caused by cars using both gasoline and existing alternative fuels. We will include the emission from the vehicle itself and also from upstream sources, primarily the source of the energy used to actually move the vehicle. The fact that electric motors have better efficiencies than internal combustion engines and the fact that power plants usually have higher thermal efficiencies than an engine seems to suggest that that the electric vehicle will be the more efficient in terms of emissions per vehicle kilometer. The complexities of vehicle propulsion become evident when one compares all the details of the available options, such as electric vehicles have to transport extra weight in batteries to increase performance. In this work we evaluate the emissions from electric and gasoline vehicles that are on the road. The data shows under most conditions the current vehicles have lower emissions than gasoline cars in terms of kilograms of carbon dioxide per kilometer. The different propulsion systems are then evaluated in how they would perform in moving a standardized vehicle including the system itself through a standardized cycle, to assess whether differences in emissions are the result of the system itself or other design differences. This study found that while in general the electric vehicle is better, the source of the electricity is a crucial factor in the determination. It is found that the cars currently being produced produce less green house gases than the gasoline cars on the average. In fact two of the four cars performed better even at the highest possible emission levels. While this casts a positive light on the electric car, it is a simplistic way of looking at the data. The calculations also show that the performance levels of the gasoline cars are much higher than the electric cars; this could be the main reason for the lower emissions of electric cars. The second part of this study is focused on quantifying the differences in emissions by studying that from a standardized car in all 50 states and D.C. These differences arise from the different levels of emissions owing to the variety of combinations of methods used and the methods themselves in the generation of electricity within the 51 regions. An analysis is done on of the most efficient car that could be made with commercially available products. The results show the dependence of actual emission on the energy source. Although the national, California, Florida and lowest averages all beat the performance of the gasoline vehicle, the gasoline car won if the electric car was operated in D.C. using electricity generated in the D.C. Results for the electric car in all 51 regions and for the gasoline car have been obtained. There is an implication that lower specific power would result in more states where electric vehicles will emit more green house gases. Assuming that new cars do use the higher specific power batteries, electric vehicles will produce less green house gases than gasoline vehicles at a national level.

How will greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles be constrained in China around 2030?

Life Cycle Assessment in the automotive sector: a comparative case study of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and electric car

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A vehicle-cycle module of the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model has been developed at Argonne National Laboratory. The fuel-cycle GREET model has been published extensively and contains data on fuel-cycles and vehicle operation. The vehicle-cycle module evaluates the energy and emission effects of vehicle material recovery and production, vehicle component fabrication, vehicle assembly, and vehicle disposal/recycling. The addition of the vehicle-cycle module to the GREET model provides a comprehensive lifecycle-based approach to compare energy use and emissions of conventional vehicle technologies and advanced vehicle technologies such as hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Using the newly developed vehicle-cycle module, this paper evaluates on a vehicle-cycle basis the energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and selected air pollutant emissions of a mid-size passenger car with the following powertrain systems - internal combustion engine, internal combustion engine with hybrid configuration, and fuel cell with hybrid configuration. We found that the production of materials accounts for a majority of the vehicle-cycle energy use and emissions of all the vehicles examined. The energy use and greenhouse gas emissions increase for the advanced powertrain vehicles compared to the internal combustion engine vehicles, due to the use of energy-intensive materials in the fuel cell system of the fuel cell vehicle and the increased use of aluminum in both the hybrid electric vehicle and the fuel cell vehicle. In addition, the use of materials such as aluminum and carbon fiber composites increases the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of lightweight vehicles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, in order to put vehicle-cycle results into a broad perspective, the fuel-cycle GREET model is used in conjunction with the vehicle-cycle module to estimate total energy-cycle results. Materials used to reduce the weight of a vehicle help improve fuel economy, and reduce the energy use and GHG emissions of the fuel-cycle and vehicle operation stages; however, production of lightweight materials is energy-intensive compared to production of conventional materials. However, when examining energy use and emissions on the total energy-cycle basis, our simulations show that in terms of reducing total energy use and emissions, there can be a significant net benefit from substituting lightweight materials.</div>

Which type of electric vehicle is worth promoting mostly in the context of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality? A case study for a metropolis in China

This study integrates the problem of locating and routing electric and conventional vehicles besides considering greenhouse gases emission. This problem is a subset of the problems of locating and routing and the green routing problem in which a combination of electric and conventional vehicles is used. The advantage of this model is the aid of the utilization of electric vehicle technology to reduce the elimination of greenhouse gases. This model can be used in the design of the transport and logistics system of organizations and companies. Many models have been developed and applied concerning electric vehicles. However, this type of composition and its use is subject to environmental requirements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. We also assumed the capability of recharging and battery replacement in the model. The model for different samples was solved using GAMS software and a multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm. Besides, the impact of increasing the tax on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was tested on electric vehicle usage, amount of GHG emissions, and system costs. The results show that the model can be used to design the transport and logistics systems of organizations to impose the least charges besides emitting the least greenhouse gases.

The Aerospace Corporation, in support of the Department of Energy (DOE) Electric Vehicle Project, has undertaken two activities related to defining the possible characteristics of the mid-1980s electric passenger car. The first activity, an investigation of the potential performance and cost characteristics through computer modeling, was supported by the Argonne National Laboratory, General Research Corporation, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and NASA/Lewis Research Center. That investigation was restricted to a 4-passenger, all-electric car similar to the DOE Electric Test Vehicle-One (ETV-1) developed by the General Electric Company and the Chrysler Corporation. The study effort was completed in February 1981. The second effort currently underway is an electric vehicle (EV) applications research study that is part of a government/industry collaborative effort. Based on the computer modeling results, the state of technology for the mid-1980s, 4-passenger electric car could achieve an urban driving range of 80 to 100 miles with acceleration competitive with a comparable-size, diesel-powered car. Top speeds and ramp accelerations compatible with highway driving also appear achievable. These conclusions assume that the batteries being developed through DOE funding--improved lead-acid, zinc/nickel oxide, iron/nickel oxide, and zinc/chloride--will achieve their currently established performance goals in mass production. The purchase price of a 4-passenger electric car with a 100-mile range is projected to be at least 50 percent higher than that of a comparable internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle. However, life-cycle costs for a 4-passenger, 100-mile-range car are predicted to range from slightly lower to moderately higher than those of a comparable ICE vehicle depending on petroleum costs and the cost and cycle life of the batteries. The eventual cost and performance of the mid-1980s electric car will be influenced greatly by the trade-offs associated with battery weight and cost versus vehicle payload and range requirements. In general, cost and performance results tend to indicate the desirability of pursuing the development of a 2-passenger car and/or a less than 100-mile-range car if the market for these types of vehicles appears sufficiently attractive. For the second effort, The Aerospace Corporation will subcontract an electric vehicle applications research study to identify the vehicle attributes most likely to influence consumer purchasing decisions. The Statement of Work for this study was prepared by a Steering Committee composed of representatives of the major domestic automobile manufacturers, the EV supply industry, the electric utility industry, and other interested organizations. As part of this effort, it was necessary to define the characteristics of the mid-1980s electric car and its expected competition in that time frame. Vehicle characteristics were selected based on a consensus of the Steering Committee members. The projected characteristics of the baseline electric car defined by the Steering Committee agree quite closely with those predicted in the modeling work mentioned earlier. For the conduct of the study, it has been predicted that the baseline electric car will achieve a 75-mile range, accelerate somewhat more slowly than a comparable ICE vehicle, and perform satisfactorily on highways. The monthly ownership and operation cost (at current gasoline prices) and purchase price are estimated to be 30 and 50 percent higher, respectively. Assuming a more optimistic battery purchase price and replacement rate, the vehicle monthly cost is predicted to be equal to that of a comparable-size ICE vehicle. Competitive vehicles in the mid-1980s are assumed to be powered by gasoline, diesel, or an alternative fuel such as methanol. The fuel economy of these vehicles in urban driving is estimated to be 40 to 50 mpg, and the acceleration is projected to be similar to or somewhat slower than today's ICE vehicle. It is anticipated that the results of the applications study will help focus future DOE and industry research and development efforts on those areas that will most satisfy consumer needs.